Asafoetida (/æsəˈfɛtɪdə/; also spelledasafetida) is the driedlatex (gumoleoresin) exuded from therhizome ortap root of several species ofFerula,perennialherbs of thecarrot family. It is produced inIran,Afghanistan,India,Central Asia andnorth-western China (Xinjiang). Different regions have different botanical sources.
Like other related resins, includinggalbanum andsagapenum, asafoetida was known inGreco-Roman antiquity. Its historical use partly overlaps with that of the now-extinctsilphium, a plant highly valued in the ancient Mediterranean world for its reputedmedicinal andculinary properties. Asafoetida is frequently mentioned inAyurvedic texts, later inArabo-Persian medical treatises, inmedieval herbals [fr], in the literature oftraditional Chinese medicine, and in thepharmacopoeias of theearly modern period.
Thetaxonomy of plants producing asafoetida is complex and has been subject to differing interpretations. The resin is most commonly associated withFerula assa-foetida andFerula foetida, which were long treated assynonyms.Ferula narthex is also frequently cited as a source. AdditionalFerula species are mentioned in the specialised literature, although they appear to be of lesser economic importance and may differ substantially in theirphytochemical composition. In many languages, the same term is used to refer both to the resin and to the plants from which it is derived.
In traditional medical systems, including Ayurveda,Unani medicine, and Westernphytotherapy, asafoetida has been used for a variety of purposes, particularly in relation to thegastrointestinal andrespiratory systems. The resin has been investigated inpharmacological research, and a range of biological activities has been reported. Its chemical composition includes compounds such asferulic acid,sesquiterpene coumarins, andorganosulfur compounds, which are known to exhibit biological activity.
As a culinary ingredient, asafoetida is primarily used in Indian and Middle Eastern cuisines, where it is employed to complement or substitute foralliaceous ingredients such asgarlic andonion. Its use in theWest has historically been limited, largely because of its odour, although it is included in certain products such asWorcestershire sauce. Beyond food, asafoetida has also been used inperfumery, mainly as afixative, and in some agricultural contexts as aplant protection product [fr], including applications as a naturalpesticide.
Historically,Afghanistan andIran have been the principal producers of asafoetida, exporting most of their production toIndia in raw form. In India, the resin is processed and packaged and is partly re-exported, sometimes in blended forms, to other markets. Since 2020, efforts have been undertaken in India to establish domestic cultivation, notably inHimachal Pradesh, in response to increasing internal demand.
Asafoetida is an oleo-gum-resin obtained primarily from thetaproot, and occasionally from therhizome and thestem, of several species of the genusFerula, notablyFerula assa-foetida,Ferula foetida, andFerula narthex.[1] It is found in irregularly shaped pieces of varying size. Externally, the resin is yellowish to brownish pink. The fractured surface isconchoidal, whitish or milky white, translucent, andnacreous, with awaxy lustre. When exposed to light and air, a freshly fractured surface may develop a violet-red or peach-blossom red colouration within a few hours; this colouration gradually fades over days or weeks, turning yellowish brown or pinkish. Asafoetida is fusible and flammable, burning in air with a white flame and producing abundant smoke. It has an acrid, bitter taste and a strong,alliaceous odour.[2] The odour is primarily attributed to the presence oforganosulfur compounds.[3]
Asafoetida is commercially available in three main forms. The form known as "tears" is considered the purest and consists of round or flattened grains measuring approximately 5 to 30 mm in diameter, typically grey or dull yellow in colour. The mass form is more common and consists of agglomerated tears, often mixed with fragments of root and soil.[3] The paste form is soft and sticky and likewise contains varying amounts of foreign material.[4]
In the Indian market, asafoetida is sold in several forms that are subject to distinct classifications, with prices generally reflecting differences in purity andorganoleptic characteristics.
A primary distinction is made betweenHing andHingra.Hing is generally regarded as the higher-grade product and is more aromatic. It is typically pale in colour and soluble in water.Hingra is darker in appearance and dissolves in oil.[5]Hing is commonly associated withF. assa-foetida andF. alliacea, whileHingra is mainly derived fromF. foetida, and to a lesser extent fromF. assa-foetida andF. narthex.[6]
Hing is further divided into categories based on geographic origin and physical characteristics. Resins originating from Iran are known asIrani Hing (formerlyAbushaharee Hing), reflecting their historical shipment through the port ofBushehr on thePersian Gulf.[7] These resins are typically dry and may contain woody residues. A milder variety, brown in colour, is obtained from a horizontal incision in the stem and may include stem fragments. A more bitter and often translucent variety is produced by incising the root.[5] Resins from Afghanistan are referred to asPathani Hing or, less commonly,Kandaharee Hing, after the province ofKandahar. These products are generally agglomerated and moist, with a stronger and more bitter taste and odour. Several commercial types are recognised, includingNaya Chal,Naya Zamin,Charas,Galmin,Khawlal,Kabuli,Shabandi, andHadda,[8] of whichHadda is described as particularly pungent and is typically sold at a higher price.[5] The product known asBandhani Hing is not a distinct variety but acomposite product prepared to facilitate culinary use.[9]
Hingra, which is less commonly used in India, has historically been associated with lower-cost markets and export trade.[7] It may originate from Iran or Afghanistan and is generally the form most often encountered inEurope. In commercial terminology, distinctions are sometimes made betweenasa foetida electa in granis (orin lacrimis, in tears),in massis (oramygdaloides, in mass), andasa foetida petraea (in stones).[6] The last category, which is uncommon, consists of irregular, angular pieces resemblingdolomite and may represent anadulterated product with a highgypsum content.[2]
The gum-resins produced by species of the genusFerula have been known sinceantiquity and were frequently confused with one another in historical sources. Despite similarities in appearance and traditional use, these substances are obtained through different extraction methods and show notable differences in theirphytochemical composition. Some of these gum-resins have occasionally been marketed under the nameasafoetida.[5]
Galbanum typically occurs as irregular, almost translucent "tears", which may agglutinate into a yellow-brown mass that becomes soft and sticky at body temperature.[5]Ferula gummosa (syn.Ferula galbaniflua) is generally regarded as its principal source, although the resin is also obtained fromFerula rubricaulis [fr],Ferula kokanica [fr], andFerula varia [fr]. The resin exudes naturally at the base of the stem and from theleaf sheaths, and incisions are often unnecessary. Galbanum has a strong, distinctive odour, sometimes described as heavy or cloying.[10] Although it was recommended for medicinal use by authors such asHippocrates andPliny the Elder, galbanum is now used mainly in perfumery.[11]
Sagapenum is a gum-resin with an odour similar to that of asafoetida. It is red or yellow externally and white internally. Also known as "seraphic gum", it is obtained by making grooves in the stem near the leaves.[12] Sagapenum is produced primarily fromFerula persica andFerula szowitziana [fr].[13]
Ammoniacum gum continues to be used in traditional medicine, although its properties are not well documented,[14] as well as in perfumery and inillumination, where it serves as an adhesive forgold leaf.[15] It is most commonly associated withDorema ammoniacum, a species reassigned in 2015 to the genusFerula on the basis of phylogenetic evidence.[16] The term ammoniacum gum is also applied to resins obtained fromFerula orientalis [fr],Ferula tingitana (Moroccan ammoniacum gum), andFerula marmarica [fr] (Cyrenaican ammoniacum gum).[13]
Sumbul, or "musk root", refers to the root ofFerula moschata (syn.Ferula sumbul) orFerula diversivittata [fr] (syn.Ferula suaveolens).[13] It is marketed as spongy slices that appear marbled white and brownish grey in cross-section.[11] The associated resin, known as "sumbul resin", exudes from stems and roots through natural fissures caused by temperature variation or by damage from animals or insects.[5]
In most languages, the names given to the resin also apply to the plants that produce it.
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The term "asafoetida" (French:ase fétide, very rarelyasse fétide) entered English,French, andOccitan through borrowing fromMedieval Latinasa fœtida. This designation remains in use in scholarly contexts in several European languages.[18] The word has given rise to numerous orthographic and typographic variants, including "asa-fœtida",[1] "asa fétida",[19] "assa fœtida",[20] "assa fetida",[21] and "asafœtida",[22] among others. The origin of the term has long been debated, and no single etymology has been universally accepted.[23]
The element "fetid" (fromfoetidus) refers to the resin’s odour and served to distinguish it from the "sweet asa" described bymedieval Arab physicians. The epithet has been attested since the 14th century. In Old and Middle French, it was later replaced in common usage by the synonym "puant" ("stinking"). The terms "asafoetida" and "fetid asa" have consistently retained a learned or technical connotation, whereas popular usage favoured more colloquial names such as "devil's dung".[18]
The earliest known occurrence in Latin ofasa is generally traced to the translations ofDioscorides produced byConstantine the African in the 11th century. The most widely cited hypothesis connects this term, along with its variantsassa andasca, to thesilphium of antiquity.[24] This plant was known to theGreeks asσίλφιον (silphion), a word whose own etymology is uncertain. It entered Latin assirpe, and its sap was referred to aslac sirpicium ("milk of silphium"), later shortened tolaserpicium orlaserpitium.[25] These forms subsequently developed intolaser-picium through reinterpretation involvingpix (pitch). Once established as an independent term,laser orlasar is thought to have evolved intoasar by deglutination, and finally intoasa through regular morphological adaptation.[18]
An alternative explanation derivesasa from thePersian termazā, meaningmastic.[26] In Persian, however, this word refers specifically to the resin of themastic tree, and the names used for asafoetida and its source plants differ.[18] Another proposal links the term to Persianasā, meaning "stick" or "club", a meaning that parallels the Latinferula and may allude to the tall stature of the plant or the use of its dried stem as a staff or cudgel.[23] Other authors have suggested aSemitic origin, deriving the word from roots meaning "to heal". In this interpretation, the Arabicasâ and Hebrewasah would render asafoetida as a "fetid remedy".[27] AAncient Greek derivation fromἄση (asē), meaning "disgust" or "nausea", has also been proposed, in reference to the substance’semetic properties.[18] Finally, aSumerian origin has been suggested byReginald Campbell Thompson, who, inThe Assyrian Herbal, identified the termaš in texts dating to the 7th century BCE as a possible early designation of asafoetida.[28] In this view, the term would have been transmitted into later languages through Greek and Arabic, as occurred with the names of several other plants.
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In theEuropean languages, the resin is designated either by forms derived from its Latin name or by direct translations of it. InEnglish, these includeasafœtida,stinking gum[29] andstinking assa;[25] inGerman,Asafötida,Asant, orStinkasant;[29] and inItalian,Spanish, andPortuguese,assafétida and related orthographic variants.[29][30] InRussian, the term isаса́фети́да (asafetida).[29] In severalGermanic languages, names equivalent to the French expression "devil's dung" (merde du diable) are also used, such as Englishdevil's dung,[29] GermanTeufelsdreck,[30] Dutchduivelsdrek, Swedishdyvelsträck, Danishdyvelsdræk, and Norwegiandyvelsdrekk.
InPersian, the resin is designated by terms derived from Middle Persian (Pahlavi)*anguzad, with classical forms includingانگوزه [angūza],انگژد [angužad],انگیان [anguyān], andانگدان [angudān].[31] These forms are derived from the Proto-Indo-Iranian root*anga- ("bent, curved"), extended by semantic development to "branch", combined with the Proto-Iranian element*ǰátu ("gum, resin"). In Modern Persian, the substance is commonly known asآنقوزه [ānqūzeh] orآنغوزه [ânğuze], and is also referred to asکما [koma] orخوراکما [khorakma].
These Iranian terms were subsequently borrowed into several other languages, including ClassicalArabicأنجدان [ʾanjudān],[31] ClassicalArmenianանգուժատ [angužat],[31] andMiddle Chinese阿魏 [āwèi].
TheSanskrit termहिङ्गु [hiṅgú] may share this Iranian origin, although the direction of borrowing has also been debated.[31] It is the source of the terms used in most of thelanguages of India, includingHindiहींग [hīṅg] andUrduہینگ [hīng]. The term was also borrowed into Chinese as形虞 [xíngyú].[31]
In theSemitic languages, a distinct set of terms was used to designate both the plant and its resin. These include MishnaicHebrewחלתית [ḥiltīt] orחילתית [ḥīltīt],Aramaicחלתיתא [ḥiltīṯā], andSyriacܚܠܬܝܬܐ [ḥeltīṯā], which was later borrowed into Arabic asحلتيت [ḥiltīt]. These principal terms were cited and transcribed in altered forms by early European authors.Garcia de Orta refers toaltiht oranjuden among Arab-Persian speakers and toimgu in India, whileEngelbert Kaempfer describes in Persia a plant known asهِينكِسَه [hingiseh].
Some authors have proposed that asafoetida was already included in ancient pharmacopoeias and may be identifiable in some of the earliest medical texts. It has been suggested, for example, that it is mentioned in theEbers Papyrus, anEgyptian medical treatise dating to the 16th century BCE, where it appears in treatments for severeburns and in ophthalmiccollyriums administered with avulture feather.[32] The resin may also have been among the medicinal plants known and cultivated inMesopotamia.[28] Its inclusion in the foundational texts of Ayurveda indicates that knowledge of the substance was well established in Asia prior to theCommon Era.[33]
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The history of asafoetida is often discussed in relation to that of ancient silphium, an unidentified plant whosesap was a major source of wealth forCyrenaica (in present-day Libya). Valued both as a luxury spice and for its reputed medicinal properties, silphium held a prominent place in the ancient Mediterranean world. Although its precise botanical identity remains uncertain, it is generally considered that asafoetida was assimilated to silphium and entered the Mediterranean sphere following the conquests ofAlexander the Great in the 4th century BCE.[34]
Asafoetida was brought to Europe by an expedition of Alexander the Great, who, after returning from a trip to northeasternancient Persia, thought that he had found a plant almost identical to the famed silphium ofCyrene in North Africa—though less tasty.Dioscorides, in the first century, wrote, "the Cyrenaic kind, even if one just tastes it, at once arouses a humour throughout the body and has a very healthy aroma, so that it is not noticed on the breath, or only a little; but the Median [Iranian] is weaker in power and has a nastier smell." Nevertheless, it could be substituted for silphium in cooking, which was fortunate, because a few decades after Dioscorides' time, the true silphium of Cyrene became extinct, and asafoetida became more popular amongst physicians, as well as cooks.[35]
In hisAnabasis,Arrian quotesAristobulus of Cassandreia, who accompanied theMacedonian army in Asia and reported that beyond the Caucasus—here referring to theHindu Kush, crossed by Alexander in the spring of 329 BCE—nothing grew except "theterebinth and the silphium".[36]Strabo similarly relates in hisGeography that soldiers suffering from hunger were forced to eat raw meat for lack of fuel, but that their digestion was aided by silphium, "which grew in abundance in the country".[37]
According to the account ofPliny the Elder, the Cyrenaican silphium had become rare and may even have disappeared entirely: "For several years it has not been found in Cyrenaica, because the farmers of the pastures, finding greater profit in it, allow their flocks to graze in the places where this plant grows".[38] Asafoetida is commonly identified with the "silphium ofMedia", which appears to have gradually replaced the Cyrenaican product in its various uses.[39] Strabo notes in this respect that "another plant that Media also produces is silphium, and the sap extracted from it, called Median sap, although usually far inferior to the Cyrenaican sap, sometimes nonetheless surpasses it".[40]
Dioscorides describes the method of resin extraction and draws attention to differences in quality and odour between the Cyrenaican product and its eastern counterparts:[41]
The sap [of silphium] is extracted from the root and stem by incision. The best sap is reddish and translucent; it has the smell ofmyrrh and a strong fragrance, is neither greenish nor unpleasant in taste, and quickly turns white. One should know that the Cyrenaican sap, even when tasted in very small quantity, immediately induces perspiration of the whole body and has a very sweet fragrance, so that the taster's breath smells only briefly. The saps of Media and Syria are decidedly weaker and their odour is rather foetid.
Pliny likewise emphasises the inferior quality of these substitutes and mentions frequentadulteration: "For a long time now we have received no other laser than that which grows abundantly in Persia, or in Media, or in Armenia; but it is far inferior to that of Cyrenaica; and even then it is adulterated with gum, or withsagapenum, or with crushedbroad bean".[38]
Roman andByzantine medical authors writing after Dioscorides continued to cite silphium in their works.Galen (2nd century),Oribasius (4th century),Caelius Aurelianus (5th century),Aëtius of Amida,Alexander of Tralles (6th century), andPaul of Aegina (7th century)[42] describe the resin and its properties, but largely reproduce earlier accounts without substantial additions.[25] Despite its scarcity, Cyrenaican silphium appears to have retained a primarily therapeutic role, and the question of its replacement by Persian resin was not definitively resolved. Some authors mention alternative preparations depending on availability:Soranus of Ephesus (2nd century), for example, gives recipes for fouremmenagogue remedies, only two of which include silphium.
The latest generally accepted evidence for the presence of silphium in Libya comes from two letters bySynesius of Cyrene, bishop of Cyrenaica, dated to the early 5th century. He refers to a silphium plant grown in his brother's garden and later to sap sent among other "luxury gifts" to a correspondent inConstantinople. These references suggest that the plant may by then have been rare in the wild and maintained primarily through cultivation.[43]
Asafoetida is also mentioned numerous times inJewish literature, such as theMishnah.[44]Maimonides also writes in theMishneh Torah "In the rainy season, one should eat warm food with much spice, but a limited amount of mustard and asafoetida [חִלְתִּיתchiltit]."[45]
During the Italian Renaissance, asafoetida was used as part of the exorcism ritual.[46]
While it is generally forgotten now in Europe, it is widely used in India. Asafoetida is mentioned in theBhagavata Purana (7:5:23-24), which states that one must not have eaten hing before worshipping the deity. Asafoetida is eaten byBrahmins andJains.[47] Devotees of theHare Krishna movement also use hing in their food, as they are not allowed to consume onions or garlic. Their food has to be presented toLord Krishna for sanctification (to becomePrasadam) before consumption and onions and garlic cannot be offered to Krishna.[48]
Arabphysicians of the Islamic Golden Age, drawing in part onGreek medical literature, attributed to asafoetida properties similar to those ascribed to silphium by Dioscorides.Yuhanna ibn Masawayh (Johannitius),Rhazes (9th century),Avicenna (11th century), and laterAverroes (12th century),Serapion the Younger, andIbn al-Baitar (13th century), distinguished between two types of medicinal resins: one described as sweet-smelling and pleasant, and the other as having a strong and unpleasant odour.[42] These authors also provided indications of the geographical origin of the plants producing them. According toAbū Ḥanīfa, as cited by Ibn al-Baitar,[49] the plant grows in the sandy plains betweenBost andKikan; forAbū Manṣūr, the highest-quality variety comes fromMerv; forIstakhri, asafoetida is produced in large quantities in the desert betweenSistan andMakran; whereas, according toAl-Idrisi, it originates in a region at the confluence of theHelmand and theArghandab.[50] Ibn al-Baitar andFakhr al-Din al-Razi described some positive medicinal effects on the respiratory system.[46]
Arabo-Persian medical knowledge was transmitted to medieval Europe through theSchool of Salerno, and the termasa entered Latin in the 11th century through the writings ofConstantine the African. TheCirca instans, attributed toPlatearius, is generally regarded as the earliest attestation of the compoundassa fetida,[24] under which name the resin is subsequently cited byAlbert the Great andArnau de Vilanova.[25] By the late 13th century, a substantial tradition of illustratedherbals had developed under the titleTractatus de Herbis, later translated into French in the 15th century as theLivre des simples médecines [fr]. Asafoetida is consistently included in these works, although its depiction is typically schematic and not based on direct observation.[51]
In theearly modern period, likely as a result of a misinterpretation ofLudovico di Varthema's description of thebenzoin ofSumatra,[52] several authors identified this resin with the "Cyrenaic juice" described by Dioscorides and with the Arab notion of asweet asa. Although this identification was disputed from an early stage and is not supported by botanical or biogeographical evidence,[53] it nonetheless gained wide acceptance and persisted for an extended period.[25] As a result, some dictionaries and pharmaceutical reference works continue to listassa dulcis as a synonym for benzoin resin.[54]
The earliest detailed account by a European observer of asafoetida is generally attributed to the Portuguese physicianGarcia de Orta, who was residing inGoa inIndia in the mid-16th century.[55] In hisColloquies on the Simples and Drugs of India, published in 1563, he discusses—through a dialogue with the fictional interlocutor Ruano—the uncertainty and confusion surrounding the names applied to the resin. Although he was unable to determine the method of extraction or to identify the plant from which the gum was obtained, Orta established that it was transported to India fromKhorasan via the port ofHormuz. He also distinguished asafoetida fromlaserpitium, which he argued had been conflated by ancient and Arabic authors, and rejected the then-recent proposal equating it with benzoin. In addition, he noted that asafoetida was widely available in India and commonly used both medicinally and as a culinary seasoning.[56]
To me, the most unpleasant odor in the world is that of asafoetida; yet greens seasoned with it do not smell bad. You should not be surprised by this, for onions have a very bad smell, and yet dishes seasoned with them are very good. The truth is that there are many habits when it comes to odors.
— Garcia de Orta,Coloquio setimo: Do Altiht[56]
About a century later, the German travellerJohan Albrecht de Mandelslo visited Persia and India and recorded observations on a variety of unfamiliar products encountered there.[57] In his travel account published in 1669, he reports thathing, referred to by Europeandruggists andapothecaries as "asafoetida", originated chiefly in Persia and was produced by two distinct plants:
One grows like a shrub and has small leaves like those ofrue; the other resembles aturnip, and its greenness is like that offig leaves. It grows preferably in stony and dry places, and its gum begins to exude toward the end of summer, so that it must be harvested in autumn.
— Johann Albrecht von Mandelslo,The Voyages and Travels of J. Albert de Mandelslo into the East-Indies[58]
The first comprehensive botanical description of the plant is generally credited to the German naturalistEngelbert Kaempfer. After travelling toIsfahan in 1684 as part of a mission associated with KingCharles XI of Sweden, Kaempfer entered the service of theDutch East India Company as a physician. During the four years he spent inPersia, he gathered extensive observations on the region’s natural history.[59] His workAmoenitatum exoticarum [fr] ("Exotic pleasures"), published in 1712, includes a full chapter devoted to "Asa foetida".[60] This chapter is illustrated with a detailed plate of the plant and provides a systematic description of the successive stages ofresin extraction as practised in the village ofDisguun,[61] located in a mountainous area along thePersian Gulf, based on observations made in 1687.[59]
In the system ofbiological nomenclature established in the mid-18th century byCarl Linnaeus, the plant identified as producing asafoetida was assigned thebinomial nameFerula assa-foetida. At that time, the circumscription of thespecies was based solely on the description provided byEngelbert Kaempfer, and subsequent botanical illustrations largely reproduced the plate published inAmoenitatum exoticarum. In the 1840s, however, several additional asafoetida-producing plants were discovered and described independently.Ferula foetida (initially described asScorodosma foetidum) was collected byAlexander Lehmann [fr] in the desert plains near theAral Sea and later formally described byAlexander von Bunge, who also observed the species in the vicinity ofHerat.Ferula narthex was identified byHugh Falconer in theAstor valley ofKashmir. In Persia, betweenJandaq andYazd,Friedrich Alexander Buhse collected material later recognised as representingFerula alliacea.[61]
Holotype of Ferula assa-foetida L., collected by Kaempfer in Iran, 1691-1692,Natural History Museum. | Syntype of Scorodosma foetidum Bunge, collected by Lehman in Uzbekistan, 1841-1842,National Museum of Natural History. | Type of Ferula narthex Boiss., collected by Falconer in Pakistan, 1838, National Museum of Natural History. |
During the 19th and 20th centuries, the botanical origin of asafoetida and its relationship to silphium and other resins mentioned by ancient authors, such as galbanum and sagapenum, were the subject of sustained scholarly discussion.[62][61] Both general and specialised literature has often presented divergent or inconsistent interpretations. More recent political developments in major producing regions—including theIranian Revolution, theconflicts in Afghanistan, and thedissolution of the Soviet Union—have further limited fieldwork and delayed comprehensivefloristic revisions and taxonomic reassessments.[16][63]
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Species of the genusFerula areherbaceousperennials, often robust in habit and exhibitingpolygamous reproductive systems. The leaves are typicallycompound, divided into two to four pairs ofpinnae, with bases that are usuallysheathing. Theinflorescence is borne on a large, strongly branchedpeduncle and consists of numerousumbels, each bearing manyflowers. The central umbel issessile or shortly pedunculate and fertile, whereas the lateral umbels are male or polygamous. Thepetals are generally yellow and only rarely white. Thefruit is a dorsally strongly compressedschizocarp,elliptical tooblong in shape, with conspicuously winged lateral ribs.[29]
Ferula assa-foetida L. andFerula foetida (Bunge) Regel are the two species most frequently cited as botanical sources of asafoetida. Their application has been affected by persistent nomenclatural and taxonomic uncertainty, and the two names have long been—and in some contexts continue to be—treated assynonyms.
F. assa-foetida is endemic toSouthern Iran and is the source of asafoetida there. It has sulphur-containing compounds in the essential oil.[64][65] Although it is often considered the main source of asafoetida on the international market,[46] this notion is attributable to the fact that severalFerula species acting as the major sources are often misidentified asF. assa-foetida.[61][66] In fact, the production of asafoetida fromF. assa-foetida is confined to its native range, namely Southern Iran, outside which the sources of asafoetida are other species.[65][67][12] It was described by Linnaeus on the basis of the description and engraved plate published in 1712 byEngelbert Kaempfer. Kaempfer’s observations, as well as the herbarium specimen regarded as theholotype of the species, originate from the village ofDisguun in southern Iran. Although the name has historically been applied in a broader sense, most botanists now restrict thetaxon to this area, where it is consideredendemic. Itsphylogeny[16] andsystematics remain poorly resolved, andF. assa-foetida has been proposed as a possible synonym of several later-described species, includingF. erubescens Boiss.,F. rubricaulis Boiss., andF. pseudalliacea Rech.f.[61][68]
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F. foetida has a substantially wider distribution, occurring inEastern Iran, westernAfghanistan, westernPakistan andCentral Asia (Karakum Desert,Kyzylkum Desert).[61][67] Asafoetida derived from this species is likely the most widely traded form and the one that has been studied most extensively, although a significant portion of the literature refers to it under the nameF. assa-foetida. It has sulphur-containing compounds in the essential oil, the same way asF. assa-foetida.[65] In European pharmaceutical usage,F. foetida is generally regarded as the principal botanical source of asafoetida.[69] From an economic perspective, it is thought to account for most of the harvests in Afghanistan,[70] a country that continues to play a leading role in global production and export.[71]
F. narthex has traditionally been cited in the literature as a third source of asafoetida. The species occurs naturally in northern Pakistan, as well as in eastern Afghanistan and southernTajikistan. However, a study of Afghan production published in 1979 reported that the resin obtained fromF. narthex lacked the organosulphur compounds considered characteristic of asafoetida.[70] In India, it is nevertheless regarded by regulatory authorities as a substitute with a comparable odour.[72]
In pharmacopoeias, the three principal species are commonly cited with the addition “and other species ofFerula”, without further specification. The names applied in the literature are affected by substantial taxonomic uncertainty, and the identity, economic significance, and resin yield of these additional species remain insufficiently documented.[69][12]
Among the species concerned are several taxa endemic to Iran, of whichFerula alliacea Boiss. is generally regarded as the most important. It occurs mainly in the north-eastern parts of the country and is mentioned in Iranian folk medicine as a medicinal plant.[12] It has also been considered to have economic relevance.[72][73] In the treatment of Umbelliferae inFlora Iranica, however,F. alliacea is annotated as anomen confusum, since the publisheddiagnoses can be referred to other species.[74] The composition of theessential oil obtained from the roots was first investigated in 2016, revealing the presence of organosulphur compounds.[75] Subsequent work has suggested that comparative analyses of the types and concentrations of these compounds may help clarify the botanical sources of asafoetida produced in Iran.[76]Ferula lutensis, likeFerula alliacea, is a source of asafoetida in Eastern Iran; both species have sulphur-containing compounds in their essential oil.[65][67]
Other Iranian species cited as potential sources includeF. rubricaulis Boiss.[73][77] andF. pseudalliacea Rech.f., endemic to western and southwesternIran and sometimes considered conspecific withF. assa-foetida;[61][66] andF. gabrielii Rech.f.[77] The first of these is also frequently mentioned as a possible source of galbanum,[78] whereas the second has been proposed as corresponding to bitter asafoetida, which is often regarded as deriving from a variety ofF. assa-foetida.[79] The phylogeny and taxonomy of these taxa remain unresolved, as they are often based on incomplete material; for example, the leaves and stem ofF. rubricaulis have not been described,[61] and thetype specimen ofF. gabrielii lacks fruits.[80]
Additional species are occasionally cited.F. rigidula Fisch. ex DC.[77] has a more westerly distribution, occurring inTurkey (Anatolia), theCaucasus (Armenia andAzerbaijan), and western Iran (Iranian Azerbaijan). Its aerial parts are used in traditional medicine in Turkey and contain several bioactive constituents, but its status as a source of asafoetida is not supported by available evidence.[81]F. jaeschkeana Vatke[29] is distributed from theCaspian Sea to theHimalayas (Tibet andBhutan). It is the only one of these species that occurs inIndia, which accounts for the attention it has received there, given the country’s high consumption of asafoetida. The species is found mainly aroundGulmarg inJammu and Kashmir at elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 metres (6,600 and 13,100 ft). In this region, its roots are locally used to obtain a gum resin applied to wounds and contusions.[82] It is not considered comparable to what is generally termed “authentic” asafoetida, as its essential oil does not contain organosulphur compounds.[83][84]
Furthermore,Ferula latisecta is the source of asafoetida in Eastern Iran and southernTurkmenistan,[67] with sulphur-containing compounds in its essential oil.[64] Lastly,Ferula sinkiangensis andFerula fukanensis are endemic toXinjiang,China. They are the sources of asafoetida in China[85] and also have sulphur-containing compounds in their essential oil.[64]
Ferula assa-foetida is amonoecious,herbaceous,perennial plant of the familyApiaceae. It grows to 2 m (6+1⁄2 ft) high, with a circular mass of 30–40 cm (12–16 in) leaves. Stem leaves have wide sheathingpetioles. Flowering stems are 2.5–3 m (8–10 ft) high and 10 cm (4 in) thick and hollow, with a number ofschizogenous ducts in thecortex containing the resinous gum. Flowers are pale greenish yellow produced in large compoundumbels. Fruits are oval, flat, thin, reddish brown and have a milky juice. Roots are thick, massive, and pulpy. They yield a resin similar to that of the stems. All parts of the plant have a distinctive smell.[86]
Most plantexudates available on the global market are obtained from trees; by contrast, asafoetida—together withtragacanth gum—is among the relatively few products derived from incisions made in the roots of aherbaceous plant.[87] Although gum exudes from all parts of the plant when cut, traditional production of asafoetida involves making incisions at the surface of theroot crown.
Demand for the gum resin is high, while supply relies largely on harvesting fromnatural habitats. This harvesting pressure has reduced thebiocapacity of affectedecosystems and poses a risk to the persistence of the species. For this reason, efforts to develop large-scalecultivation have been undertaken, motivated by both economic andenvironmental considerations.[88] A range ofcultivars is commercially available; these are generally differentiated by country of origin and perceived quality rather than by precise botanical source.[8]
The plant grows best undertemperate anddry climatic conditions. Optimal annualprecipitation is reported to range between 250 and 350 millimetres (14 in). Although the plant tolerates temperatures of up to 35 °C (95 °F), optimal temperatures are around 15 °C (59 °F) forgermination and between 10 and 20 °C (50 and 68 °F) forvegetative growth, under conditions of high light availability. Cultivation is reported from elevations between 600 and 2,400 metres (7,900 ft), often on slopes steeper than 25%. The species favours fertile, well-drained soils of sandy or clayeyloam type and tolerates a wide range of soilpH, from acidic to alkaline.[8]
Propagation is most commonly achieved byseed.Vegetative reproduction through root division is possible in September but is generally discouraged because it causes substantial disturbance to the plant.[8] Seeds are typically collected at the end of summer.[89] Undergreenhouse conditions, sowing may take place in autumn as soon as seeds reach maturity, whereas in open-field cultivation sowing is usually carried out in December–January or in April.Germination generally begins after approximately 20 days (1,700 ks). Winter sowing is associated with higher emergence rates and improved tuber yield but requires the use of protectivemulch. Seeds exhibit prolongeddormancy and relatively low germination rates; these constraints may be alleviated bystratification, washing, or treatment withgrowth hormones.[8] An Iranian study also reported thatpriming techniques improved germination and reduced the adverse effects ofsalinity stress.[88]
During the first year of cultivation, an application of approximately 15 to 20 tonnes (15 to 20 long tons; 17 to 22 short tons) ofmanure per hectare is generally recommended. In subsequent years, nutrient inputs are typically supplied throughfertilisers, with application rates progressively increased up to about the tenth year of growth. Commonly cited initial application rates are 20 grams (0.71 oz) ofN, 18 grams (0.63 oz) ofP, and 18 grams (0.63 oz) ofK per plant. In soils identified as deficient inzinc, a basal application of zinc sulphate at approximately 20 kilograms (44 lb) per hectare is reported to improve yields. Two periods ofweeding per year are usually required (June–July and October–November), along withdigging or loosening of the soil around plants in August–September.
Water stress is considered one of the main limiting factors for growth and productivity. Moist conditions are primarily required during germination, whereas prolonged or excessive moisture at later stages may be detrimental. Weeklyirrigation is generally regarded as adequate under cultivated conditions. In high-altitude cultivation areas, water requirements may be met in part or entirely by springsnowmelt.[8]
The specific sequence and timing of operations vary by region, but the overall harvesting technique is broadly similar throughout the plant’s range.Engelbert Kaempfer provided a detailed account of the method used in the region ofLar in southern Iran at the end of the 17th century.[60] In the 19th century,Henry Walter Bellew, followed byJames Edward Tierney Aitchison, documented comparable practices in the area aroundHerat in Afghanistan.[90] Ethnobotanical surveys indicate that the preparation and harvesting methods used in rural areas of both countries remain broadly consistent with these historical descriptions.[89]
The plant generally requires about five years to reach full development, attaining heights of up to 2 metres (6 ft 7 in).[91] Older individuals tend to yield larger quantities of resin.[8] Plants selected for harvesting are often identified and marked by local collectors in November of the preceding year.[89] Collection of thelatex begins when the foliage changes from green to yellow, typically in March or April, shortly beforeflowering.[3] The initial step involves clearing soil and stones from around the plant and removing the foliage and stem. The upper part of the root, surmounted by a brush-like structure, is exposed, then covered with loose soil and gravel and left for approximately five days. The brush is subsequently removed, and the top of the root is scraped over an area of up to 6.5 square centimetres (1.01 sq in), after which it is covered with a dome-shaped structure made of twigs and stones.
After two or three days, a first incision is made and the exuding latex is collected. Two to three days later, a second incision, slightly deeper (about 0.5 centimetres (0.20 in)), is made to allow further exudation. This sequence of cutting and collection is repeated for ten to fifteen cycles, until latex production ceases.[8] In an alternative method, the exudate is allowed to dry on the root and is then scraped off after several days.[3] After each operation, the exposed surface of the root is protected to prevent contamination by soil or gravel and to maintain cool conditions conducive to resin maturation.[92] The collected exudate is stored in a pit dug into the ground, the dimensions of which depend on the expected yield but may reach 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) in length and 2.4 metres (7 ft 10 in) in depth. The sides of the pit are lined with mud, and the opening is covered with plant stems, leaving an aperture of about 30 centimetres (12 in) in diameter through which the daily harvest is added.[93] The entire harvesting period lasts approximately three months. Average yields have been estimated at around 40 grams (1.4 oz) of resin per root, although individual plants may produce up to 900 grams (32 oz).[8]
InSouth Khorasan, in eastern Iran, harvesting is conducted later in the year and follows a somewhat modified procedure. Collection takes place in 12 to 16 cycles of four to five days between June and August. In this region, the base of the stem is retained, and a thin slice is removed at each stage. These slices, known in Persian askeshteh, are collected together with the exuded resin and allowed to dry. The dried material is then sold to processing facilities, where the crude gum-resin is extracted. An experienced harvester may process up to 1,000 plants per cycle and obtain between 2 and 3 kilograms (4.4 and 6.6 lb) of raw product in favourable years.[89]
The resin may also be obtained through a series of incisions made at the junction between the rhizome stem and the taproot.[3] In parts of Afghanistan, somePashtuns collect resin by cutting the stems of wild plants and boiling them together with the roots to evaporate the water. Resin produced using this method is generally regarded as being of lower quality than that obtained through standard tapping techniques.[93]
The resin stored in pits is typically thick and sticky. It is characterised by a strong odour and a bitter, acrid taste, and its colour ranges from white to grey or dark red. During storage, the material continues to mature and can subsequently be hand-moulded and processed into forms commonly referred to as “tears”, “mass”, or “paste”. White asafoetida was traditionally wrapped in cloth and then placed injute sacks, whereas the dark red variety was packed in goat or sheep skin, a method associated with more pronounced maturation. In contemporary practice, packaging is generally carried out using plastic bags or sheets, which are then placed in wooden boxes.[94]
The principal derived products of asafoetida are the essential oil, the tincture, and the compounded powder. Theessential oil is obtained bysteam distillation. It is stored in airtight containers and kept in a cool environment (15 to −25 °C (59 to −13 °F)). Because of its high concentration, handling practices generally recommend avoiding contact with the eyes or skin and limitinginhalation of vapours. The essential oil is used primarily in medicinal preparations. Thetincture is produced by extracting the resin withethanol and may vary in concentration according to its application. A commonly cited preparation involves macerating 200 grams (7.1 oz) of asafoetida in 750 millilitres (26 imp fl oz; 25 US fl oz) of 70 per cent alcohol for one week, followed by filtration and dilution to volume. When water is added, the tincture becomes milky as a result ofemulsification of the essential oil (theOuzo effect). Tinctures are used mainly in thepharmaceutical industry, thefood flavouring industry, andperfumery.[94]
The compounded form of asafoetida, known in India asBandhani Hing, is produced by diluting resin from one or more sources with substances such asgum arabic,rice flour orwheat flour, andturmeric.[6] Thisadulteration reduces odour intensity, limits clumping, and imparts colour to the preparation.[9] Compounding allows direct use in cooking without prior dilution, as the pure resin is highly concentrated and difficult to grate. Formulations vary among manufacturers and are generally treated astrade secrets, but the final product typically contains about 30% asafoetida.
Bandhani Hing is especially popular in southern India and is marketed in powdered form or as bricks of compacted powder.[94]
Asafoetida is an oleo-gum-resin (or gum oleoresin), consisting of three main groups of constituents: resinous compounds (approximately 40–64%),endogeneous gum (about 25%), and a volatile fraction in the form of essential oil (10–17%).
The totalash content typically ranges from 1.5 to 10%.[95] The resin fraction contains up to 60% ferulic acid and itsesters, along withcoumarins and variousterpenoids,asaresinotannols A and B,umbelliferone, and four unidentified compounds.[96] The gum fraction is composed ofsimple sugars (glucose,galactose,L-arabinose,rhamnose, andglucuronic acid), as well aspolysaccharides andglycoproteins. The volatile oil component is rich in variousorganosulfide compounds, such as 2-butyl-propenyl-disulphide, diallyl sulphide,diallyl disulphide (also present in garlic)[97] anddimethyl trisulfide, which is also responsible for the odour of cooked onions. The organosulfides are primarily responsible for the odour and flavour of asafoetida.[30][65]
Ferulic acid is aphenolic derivative ofcinnamic acid that is widespread and abundant in theplant cell wall. It was first isolated in 1866 by the Austrian chemistsHeinrich Hlasiwetz andLudwig Barth zu Barthenau from asafoetida and was named after its botanical source (Ferula sp.).[98] Ferulic acid has been reported in the literature to exhibit a range of biological activities, includingantioxidant,antiallergic, hepatoprotective,anti-cancer,anti-inflammatory,antimicrobial,antiviral,vasodilator, and antithrombotic effects. It has also been studied for its effects onsperm viability and for its involvement inchelation,modulation of enzymatic activity, activation oftranscription factors,gene expression, andsignal transduction.[99] In asafoetida, ferulic acid occurs either in free form or as an ester of asaresinotannol.[6] The free acid is converted intoumbelliferone duringdry distillation.[100]
Sesquiterpene coumarins are naturally occurring compounds with documentedpharmacological activity, produced by certain plant species in the familiesAsteraceae (genusArtemisia),Rutaceae (genusHaplophyllum), andApiaceae (generaAngelica,Heptaptera,Heracleum,Peucedanum, andFerula, which is particularly rich in these constituents). Structurally, they consist of asesquiterpene (terpene with 15 carbon atoms) linked by anether bond to acoumarin derivative. In the case of asafoetida, the coumarin moiety is predominantlyumbelliferone (7-hydroxycoumarin).[101]
The simplest compound in this group is umbelliprenin, which was first isolated in 1938 from the seeds ofAngelica archangelica.[102] Its biological properties were investigated in detail only in the 21st century, when studies reportedanti-inflammatory,antioxidant, andantileishmanial activities.[103] Several derivatives of umbelliprenin have also been identified in asafoetida, including5-hydroxyumbelliprenin,8-hydroxyumbelliprenin,9-hydroxyumbelliprenin, asacoumarin (5,8-hydroxyumbelliprenin),5-acetoxy-8-hydroxyumbelliprenin,8-acetoxy-5-hydroxyumbelliprenin (reported to exhibitanti-inflammatory andantiviral activity),10-R-karatavicinol,6,7-dihydroxykaratavicinol, and10-R-acetoxy-11-hydroxyumbelliprenin.[101]
The resin also contains other cyclic compounds that have been investigated for potential therapeutic effects.Farnesiferols A, B, C, and D have been reported to show antiviral, anti-tumour, and anti-angiogenic activity. Conferol has been studied for antiviral andcytotoxic effects, as well as forsynergistic interactions with anti-cancer agents such asvincristine. Galbanic acid has been reported, among other properties, to influenceantibiotic resistance inStaphylococcus aureus.[104] Additional cyclic derivatives of sesquiterpene coumarins—including gummosin,assafoetidnol A and B, polyanthine, badrakemin, samarcandin, feselol, microlobidene, and kellerin—have been identified in asafoetida and otherFerula species, and several of these compounds continue to be the subject of pharmacological research.[101]
VolatileOrganosulfur compounds areSecondary metabolites produced by plants andMicroorganisms and are often characterised by strong odours. These odours arise from varioussulphur-containing molecules, includingHydrogen sulfide (commonly described as having a rotten egg odour),Sulfur dioxide (sharp and irritating), and a range ofThiols. In plants, such compounds are found primarily in the familiesBrassicaceae,Apiaceae,Liliaceae,Caricaceae,Capparaceae,Solanaceae, andRutaceae. From a pharmacological perspective, organosulfur compounds have been reported to exhibitAnti-inflammatory,immunomodulatory,antihypertensive,Antioxidant, andhypocholesterolaemic activities. They are also used as indicators of quality and authenticity in commercial plant materials and derived products.[76]
The attribution of the characteristic odour and taste of asafoetida to sulphur-containing compounds, by analogy with garlic or onion, has been proposed since the late 19th century.[105] In 1891, the German chemistFriedrich Wilhelm Semmler demonstrated the presence of aDisulfide in the essential oil of the resin, although its precise structure could not be determined at that time.[106] The disulfide of2-butyl and1-propenyl was subsequently identified in 1936 as the principal component of the volatile fraction.[107] The concentration of this compound and the relative proportions of itsZ andEDiastereomers vary considerably depending on the species[75] and the timing of harvest.[108]
The essential oil of asafoetida contains more than80 compounds, including at least approximately thirty additional organosulphur compounds.[109] Several of these molecules activate the TRPA1 channel, a member of theIon channel family oftransient receptor potential (TRP) channels, in a manner comparable to mustard essential oil or the sulphur compounds present in onion and garlic. This receptor is strongly expressed in theOral cavity and theRespiratory tract. Its activation has been implicated in thepungency of asafoetida and, through desensitisation mechanisms, may contribute to the symptomatic relief of respiratory conditions traditionally associated with the spice.[110]
Beyond their contribution to the sensory and medicinal properties of the resin, organosulphur compounds may serve aschemotaxonomic markers for determining its botanical origin. A 2020 study applied this approach by establishing sulphur compound profiles of asafoetida-producing species in Iran usingGas chromatography coupled withMass spectrometry. Analysis of commercially available resin samples allowed correlations to be drawn with specific taxa and their geographic origin. The results indicated higher absolute concentrations of organosulphur compounds in eastern species such asF. foetida andF. alliacea, whereas samples ofF. assa-foetida collected in southern Iran showed a higher relative content ofMonoterpene compounds, notablyα-pinene andβ-pinene.[76]
In the 1990s, pharmacopoeias noted that the medicinal use of asafoetida was not supported byclinical evidence.[111] During the first two decades of the 21st century, however, a substantial body ofpharmacological research, mainly conducted in Iran, examined the properties of the oleo-gum-resin. These studies, primarily based on laboratory and preclinical models, have reported a range of biological activities that suggest pharmacological potential. The specific active phytochemical constituents have not yet been fully identified, and further investigation is required to establish their safety and clinical relevance.[112]
| System | Function | Identified active principles | Study type | Product origin | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Endocrine system | Anti-obesity,antidiabetic,antihyperlipidemic | Ferulic acid,Umbelliferone,Quercetin | In vivo,rats | Commercial resin | Abu-Zaiton (2010)[113][better source needed] |
| Commercial resin | Azizian et al. (2012)[114] | ||||
| F. assa-foetida (Bastak, Iran) | Latifi et al. (2019)[115] | ||||
| Digestive system | Antidiarrheal | – | in vivo, rats | F. assa-foetida | Jalilzadeh-Amin et al. (2017)[116] |
| Antispasmodic | – | In vitro,ileum ofGuinea pig | F. assa-foetida (Gonabad, Iran) | Fatehi et al. (2004)[117] |
In adults, the ingestion of asafoetida is generally considered to be associated with low or negligibletoxicity. A study involving ten volunteers reported no adverse effects following the ingestion of 3 grams (0.11 oz) of oleo-gum-resin consumed on buttered bread, and doses of up to 15 grams (0.53 oz) have also been described as tolerated. Adverse effects have nevertheless been reported after the ingestion of higher amounts, including occasional lip swelling andindigestion, with fetid belching,flatulence, anddiarrhoea.Headaches,dizziness, and increasedlibido have also been described.
In individuals described as nervous or sensitive, doses of approximately 0.05 to 0.1 grams (0.0035 oz) have been reported to induceconvulsions. The external application of resin-basedpoultices to the abdomen has been associated with inflammation and swelling of thegenital organs.[118] A case ofmethaemoglobinaemia has been documented in a five-week-old infant following the ingestion of glycerinated asafoetida administered as a folk remedy forcolic. The infant was hospitalised approximately six hours after ingestion, presenting withtachypnoea andcyanosis.[119]
Thegenotoxicity of asafoetida has been investigated in thelaboratory mouse. Oral administration was reported to have a weak inducing effect onsister chromatid exchanges inspermatogonia.[120] In a separate study, the resin was found to inducechromosomal abnormalities inspermatocytes, an effect attributed toumbelliferone.[121] By contrast, nomutagenic effects were observed inDrosophila.[122] Because of its reportedabortifacient properties, the use of asafoetida is generally discouraged duringpregnancy.[123]
When the resin is sold in solid chunks, it is typically first broken up and ground in amortar and pestle with an absorbent material such asrice flour.[11] The resulting powder is then fried in oil or soaked in water, a process that produces an aroma reminiscent of onion or garlic.[123] The use of compounded asafoetida reduces the risk of excessive dosing, as only very small amounts are required: approximately one sixteenth of ateaspoon is sufficient to season a dish for one person. In powdered form, the spice retains its aroma for several years, while the pure resin can preserve its aromatic properties for decades.[9] The odour of the pure resin is so strong that the pungent smell will contaminate other spices stored nearby if it is not stored in an airtight container.[46]
Whether silphium truly disappeared in the 1st century or became prohibitively expensive, it appears to have been interchangeable with asafoetida inancient Roman cuisine. Both substances were used to flavour a wide variety of dishes, and their culinary role has been compared to that of the onion in modern European cooking.[34] According to the recipe collectionThe Art of Cooking by Apicius, compiled at the end of the 4th century,laser "from Cyrenaica or from theParthians" was dissolved either alone ingarum (fish sauce) andvinegar, or combined withpepper,parsley,mint, andhoney. It was also recommended to store it in a jar withpine nuts, using the nuts gradually while replacing them with fresh ones to conserve the costly spice.[124] In theNear East during theTalmudic period, asafoetida was commonly used both as a seasoning and as a remedy. Typical preparations involved dissolving it in cold or hot water,[125] or in vinegar.[126]
Asafoetida and garum appear to have fallen out of common culinary use in the earlyMiddle Ages, possibly replaced by new ingredients such asalmond milk or by evolving combinations ofspices andherbs.[127] Border conflicts betweenRome and theSasanian Persia may also have restricted resin imports or significantly increased their cost. Asafoetida later reappeared in Europeanpharmacopoeias under the influence of Arabic medicine, but it appears to have been less commonly used as a culinary ingredient.[128] Nevertheless, recipes incorporating the resin are found in theKitāb al-ṭabīẖ, a 13th-century collection fromMuslim Iberia, as well as in the dietary guidance ofMaimonides in theMishneh Torah, indicating its continued presence in medieval Mediterranean cuisines.[129] In the modern period, however, most culinary traditions involving asafoetida are associated with Asian cuisines.
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InIndian cuisine, asafoetida is widely used to flavour curries, soups, sauces, andpickles, most often in combination with other allium-like aromatics. In southern regions of the subcontinent, it is commonly used in vegetarian dishes such assambar,rasam, and certainlentil-based curries. It is also sometimes added to fish dishes and is used in the preparation ofpapadums, flatbreads made fromurad bean flour.[123] Asafoetida is also a component of traditionalspice mixes such aschaat masala.[11] In addition, it is an essential seasoning inchivda, a category of snack mixes originating inBombay. The resin continues to be used as a substitute for garlic or onion by certain communities that avoid these foods, includingJains, who refrain from eating roots, and someBrahmins, who traditionally regard garlic as a prohibitedaphrodisiac.[130] Asafoetida is quickly heated in hot oil before it is sprinkled on the food, a practice known astempering.[46] It is sometimes used to harmonise sweet, sour, salty, and spicy components in food.
In Afghanistan and Pakistan, Pashtun communities traditionally use asafoetida in the preparation oflahndi. Fresh meat is rubbed with a mixture of resin and salt, threaded onto tall racks, and left to air-dry. Thisdried meat is then consumed during the winter months.[123]
Among the peoples of the formerSoviet Union, theTurkmen are reported to be the primary consumers of asafoetida, where it is known asчомуч [tchomutch]. TheYomut tribe prepares a specific condiment from it calledалажа [alaja].[131] Young plant parts and roots are also used to produce a sweet preparation known asтошоп [tochop]. These are boiled for several hours until the liquid thickens into a dense, dark brown to black mass resemblingmolasses. The mixture is strained to remove fibrous residues, which are used as animal feed. Thetochop is then seasoned with butter or melted sheep fat and eaten with bread.[132][133] Asafoetida was also used byKazakhs inXinjiang (China), as well as byDungans andUyghurs living in Kazakhstan. Because of its strong odour, it was not added directly to dishes; instead, a piece of resin was used to draw one or two lines on the bottom of the cooking vessel before adding rice, vegetables, and meat. This technique was sufficient to impart an allium-like flavour to the dish.[131]
Asafoetida was among the formerly undisclosed ingredients ofWorcestershire sauce, which is used in Anglo-Saxon culinary traditions in soups, boiled meats,steak tartare, and pork pies fromWiltshire.[134] According to documented recipes, oneimperial gallon (4.5 litres (0.99 imp gal; 1.2 US gal)) of the condiment contains 6.5 imperial gallons (30 litres; 7.8 US gallons) (23 millilitres (0.81 imp fl oz; 0.78 US fl oz)) of resin dissolved in apint ofbrandy at 20 percent alcohol by volume.[135] Despite its very small proportion, this amount contributes to the characteristic flavour of the sauce.[134]
The medicinal uses of asafoetida as abotanical drug are long-standing and widespread. SeveralAssyriologists, includingReginald Campbell Thompson[28] andSamuel Noah Kramer,[136] have suggested that the resin was already known inMesopotamian medicine [fr]. Its introduction into the Mediterranean world has been debated, but it is generally considered likely that the “Medican juice” described byDioscorides gradually replaced Libyansilphium, which had been praised byHippocrates,Aristotle andTheophrastus for similar therapeutic uses.[137] In theOrient, asafoetida is reported in foundational Ayurvedic texts such as theCharaka Samhita and theSushruta Samhita from the earlyCommon Era.[138] Around the same period, theTalmud refers to the resin, notably as a treatment for “heaviness [pain] of the heart”,[139] while also noting potential risks associated with its use.[140] Persian medical writings byRhazes andAvicenna describe it as a long-established medicinal substance, and these accounts continue to inform Iranian traditional practices andUnani medicine.[141]Traditional Chinese medicine adopted the resin under Indian and Persian influence, and its properties were described byLi Shizhen in theCompendium of Materia Medica at the end of the 1.[142]
In Western medicine, asafoetida was transmitted from medieval herbals into early modern pharmacopoeias and formed part of standard medical practice until the development ofpharmaceutical chemistry.[note 1][118] It is now mainly regarded as a traditional remedy. In France, asafoetida is included in List A of medicinal plants, for which sale is restricted to pharmacists, and is indicated for use in traditional European andoverseas medicine.[143]
The principal traditional indications for the resin concern thegastrointestinal tract. In European, Iranian and Indian traditions, it is described as acarminative andantispasmodic. An aqueous extract of the dried gum has also been administered orally as ananthelmintic, while Chinese medicine employs it as an intestinalantiparasitic.[86] In Ayurveda, it is recommended roasted inghee (clarified butter) for flatulence and related gastrointestinal complaints, a preparation believed to reduce irritation.[30] Asafoetida has likewise been used inveterinary medicine for similar purposes.[144][145]Garcia de Orta recounts the following anecdote:
A Portuguese fromBesnagar had a very expensive horse, but it suffered from gas, and the King did not wish to buy it for this reason. The Portuguese cured it by feeding itimgu [asafoetida] with flour. The King bought it at a good price after its recovery, and asked the man with what he had treated it. He replied that he had given itimgu. The King retorted: "Do not be surprised, for you gave it the food of the gods, the nectar, as the poets say." The man then replied, but softly and in Portuguese, that they would have done better to call it the food of demons.
— Garcia de Orta,Colóquio sétimo: Do Altiht[146]
Asafoetida has also been traditionally associated withexpectorant effects and uses related to therespiratory system. In Ayurvedic and Iranian traditions, it is described as beneficial in cases ofasthma. It has been used in Afghanistan, India and Saudi Arabia in the treatment ofwhooping cough andbronchitis.[86] In ancient Rome, it is reported to have replacedsilphium in treatments fortuberculosis and chroniccoughs.[30] Sedative or calming properties have also been attributed to it: it has been consumed in India and Afghanistan forhysteria, and regarded as asedative in Nepal.[30] Its use has also been reported in traditional Iranian[30] and Moroccan medicine forepilepsy, the latter recommending chewing the gum.[86]
Asafoetida has further been employed in contexts related tosexual health andreproductive medicine. It has a long-standing reputation as anaphrodisiac and has been reported as such in Brazil and the United States. In India, a hot extract has been used as anemmenagogue, while in Malaysia the gum has been chewed in cases ofamenorrhea.[86] A study of traditionalbirth control practices inAlexandria (Egypt) during the 1970s found that more than half of the women surveyed reported using asafoetida as acontraceptive, applied to the vaginal walls shortly before or after sexual intercourse.[147] During theinfluenza pandemic followingWorld War I, the resin also gained some popularity as anantiviral remedy, for reasons that remain unclear.[110]
Finally, asafoetida has been used externally in a variety of traditional applications. Iranian medical practice prescribes it mixed withhoney for toothache, inolive oil for relief ofotitis pain, as acerate forcorns andwarts, and as apoultice in the treatment ofalopecia.[12]
Extracts of the gum-resin and the essential oil are used inperfumery, primarily as afixative.[148] The asafoetidaabsolute is obtained by alcoholic extraction. It forms a semi-solid reddish-brown mass with a pronounced alliaceous odour. Beneath this initial note, it is described as having a softer, balsamic character. Upon desiccation, a component with similarities tovanillin becomes apparent.Ferulic acid, present in relatively large amounts, is chemically related to the aromatic compoundferulaldehyde, associated with the characteristic aroma ofmaple syrup, as well as toisoeugenol and vanillin. Steam distillation of the extract can reduce sulphurous notes, yielding a material valued for its fixative properties. At low concentrations, asafoetida may contribute distinctive nuances to rose accords and heavy oriental compositions.
The essential oil ranges from pale yellow to yellow–orange in colour and has a strong garlic-like odour that is often described as acrid. It does not exhibit the same fixative capacity or balsamic base notes as the absolute.[149] Asafoetida notes have been reported in fragrances such asTendre Poison byDior,Cabochard byMadame Grès, andMolinard byMolinard.[150]
Asafoetida has also been burnt asincense for ritual, therapeutic, or symbolic purposes. This practice remains relatively limited in comparison with its culinary and medicinal uses and has not achieved the prominence ofgalbanum, which is cited as a component of sacred incense in theBible. Both gum-resins are nevertheless rich in sesquiterpene coumarins, which may act as precursors of odouriferous compounds formed throughpyrolysis.[151]
In Iran, in continuity with the Arabic pharmacological tradition,[152] asafoetida has sometimes been used in fumigations for abortive purposes.[12] It has also been reported inesotericism, where it has been attributed various symbolic or ritual properties, includingexorcistic functions. The 1occultistKarl von Eckartshausen, for example, listed it among the substances used in fumigations intended to “provoke apparitions” or to “banish spectres”.[153]
Asafoetida has also been reported to haveagricultural applications, including use as a naturalpesticide or plant protection product. Medieval sources describe its recommendation for controllingcaterpillars on vegetables, its use as aninfusion applied tosquash affected by worms, and its combination withvinegar to treat storedlentils.[154] In Afghanistan, it has been used againstnematodes, and in India againsttermites. Itsrepellent properties have also been employed to deter animals such as cats, dogs, rabbits, or game.[118]
Theinsecticide properties of asafoetida essential oil have been investigated for the control of theblack bean aphid in Iran.[155][156]
In southern India, an experimental application of the resin has been reported as a plant protection treatment in crops ofsquash,eggplant,tomatoes,sesame, andpeanuts. In this context, asafoetida is diluted in irrigation water at a rate of one kilogram peracre, with reports of reduced reliance on synthetic pesticides and increased yields.[157]
InPakistan, treatment of eggplant andwatermelon crops with a suspension of asafoetida combined with powdered species ofalgae has been reported to suppress theplant pathogenic fungiFusarium solani andMacrophomina phaseolina, as well as the root-knot nematodeMeloidogyne incognita. Treated plants were described as having greater shoot length and mass and earlierfruiting than those in thecontrol group or those treated with a syntheticfungicide.[158]
The use of asafoetida as a naturalfertiliser has produced mixed results. An experiment conducted in India onmelon crops reported no significant effects.[159] By contrast, a study conducted in China reported that the addition of asafoetida extract to thegrowing medium ofPleurotus eryngii acceleratedmycelium andsporophore development and was associated with changes in theorganoleptic and nutritional characteristics of the mushrooms.[160]
In industrial contexts, asafoetida diluted in an aqueous salt solution has been investigated as a potential corrosion inhibitor for steel.[161]
Information on the global production and trade of asafoetida is limited, as systematic data collection by producing or importing countries is lacking. The resin remains a wild-harvested product, and large-scale cultivation has not yet been developed using standardised scientific methods.Productivity could potentially be improved through the selection of high-yield varieties and the refinement ofagronomic practices. Harvesting and processing methods remain largely traditional and could be further developed to increase output and improve resin quality. Contamination of the raw product with foreign matter is reported to be relatively high.[123]
Afghanistan is the principal exporting country of asafoetida. Most production is collected inHerat Province, near the Iranian border. Reliable information on cultivated areas or harvested volumes is unavailable, as production and trade are not centrally organised. Estimates suggest that annual production amounted to 500 to 600 tonnes (490 to 590 long tons; 550 to 660 short tons) in the 1990s, before declining as a result of prolonged political instability.[162] During the 2010s, production was reported to have increased again, reaching more than 335 tonnes (330 long tons; 369 short tons) in 2017.[163]
Iran ranks second among producing countries, with output reaching approximately 110 tonnes (110 long tons; 120 short tons) in favourable years. Asafoetida is mainly harvested in the regions aroundMashhad andKerman.[162] Harvesting often constitutes a supplementary activity for rural populations, alongsideagriculture andanimal husbandry. InSouth Khorasan Province, one of the country’s driest and least developed regions, asafoetida represents the most economically significantmedicinal plant. Annual production in the province ranges from 15 to 60 tonnes (59 long tons; 66 short tons), over an area exceeding 100,000 hectares (250,000 acres). Approximately 99% of the resin is exported. In 2016, traditional harvesters reportedly received between 25 and 70 USD per kilogram of dried resin, while the same quantity sold for between 130 and 170 USD on international markets.[164] Wild harvesting of asafoetida in protected areas is prohibited but has been reported to occur, for example in theBakhtegan Lake region.[165]
Countries ofCentral Asia were not traditionally producers of asafoetida. This has changed following declines in Afghan output, and Uzbekistan,Tajikistan andKyrgyzstan are now among the suppliers to Indian importers.[166] One of the main wholesalers on the Indian subcontinent,Laljee Godhoo & Co., reported in 2018 that more than half of its asafoetida imports originated fromKazakhstan.[167] In Uzbekistan, an association of asafoetida producers and exporters was established in 2018, with plans to expand cultivation in areas with suitable climatic conditions and to develop technologies for the domestic production of medicines and plant protection products derived from the resin.[168]
India is the largest importer of asafoetida. In 2007, it imported 686 tonnes (675 long tons; 756 short tons) of resin, valued at 16.5 million USD.[71] Import values continued to increase, reaching 89 million USD in 2017,[166] corresponding to an estimated 6–8% of the Indian spice market.[167] In that year, one kilogram of Afghan white asafoetida cost approximately 62 USD, while transport and insurance fromKabul toMumbai amounted to 131 USD. The resin, acquired at a total cost of 193 USD per kilogram, was resold domestically for about 242 USD.[166] Most imported asafoetida is processed in India, with a portion re-exported after processing. The price of the processed composite product is considerably lower than that of the raw resin; for example, in 2010 it averaged 9.54 USD per kilogram at export, compared with 42.18 USD per kilogram at import. Export volumes vary substantially and peaked at 723 tonnes (712 long tons; 797 short tons) in 2005–2006. India’s principal export destinations include theUnited Arab Emirates, followed by theUnited States, theUnited Kingdom,Singapore,Thailand andMalaysia.[162] Since 2020, experimental efforts have been underway to introduce the cultivation of asafoetida in theHimalayas of northern India.[169]
Asafoetida is frequently mixed with foreign substances and is widely regarded as one of the most commonlyadulterated spices.[170] Materials such asclay,sand or stone are sometimes found mixed with the product. Because resin extraction methods are largely rudimentary, the exudate often contains soil, dust or fragments of plant material.[171] Historical sources frequently note problems of product falsification.Pliny reported the adulteration of Persianlaser with gum,sagapenum or crushedfava bean.Kaempfer mentioned the fraudulent addition ofsilt.[60] Accounts from the 1 describe products sold on European markets that were manufactured entirely frompitch and the juice ofgarlic.[25] In the 1, the weight of the resin has been reported to be artificially increased through the addition of substances such asgypsum,rosin,gum arabic,chalk,wheat flour orbarley, as well as slices ofpotato and other materials.[172] Exudates from other plant species, not necessarily belonging to the genusFerula, are also reported to be incorporated and sold to less informed buyers.[171]
As the principal importer of asafoetida,India has established regulations intended to limit resin adulteration. Under the 1954Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, the following quality standards apply to asafoetida products:[171]
For consumers, several approximate methods are sometimes described for assessing product purity. When placed in the flame of an alcohol lamp, asafoetida ignites and burns rapidly, in a manner comparable tocamphor, with any non-combustible residue indicating impurities. In addition, asafoetida dissolved in water typically produces a milky white colour; the appearance of other colours may indicate the presence of adulterants or added colourants.[170]
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