| Artsakh Արցախ | |
|---|---|
| Province ofKingdom of Armenia | |
| c. 189 BC–387 AD | |
 Location of Artsakh (green) in Armenia | |
| Historical era | Antiquity,Middle Ages |
• Conquered byArtaxias I | c. 189 BC |
• Ceded toCaucasian Albania | 387 AD |
• Kingdom of Artsakh founded | 1000 AD |
Artsakh (Armenian:Արցախ,romanized: Artsʻakh,pronounced[ɑɾˈtsʰɑχ]) was the tenthprovince (nahang) of theKingdom of Armenia fromc. 189 BC until 387 AD and afterwards made part of theCaucasian Albania, a subject principality of theSasanian Empire, following thePeace of Acilisene. From the 7th to 9th centuries, it fell underArab control.[1] In 821, it formed the Armenianprincipality of Khachen and around the year 1000 was proclaimed theKingdom of Artsakh, one of the last medievaleastern Armenian kingdoms and principalities to maintain its autonomy following the Turkic invasions of the 11th to 14th centuries.[2]
Cuneiform inscriptions left byUrartian kings mention a land or lands calledArdakh/Adakh,Urdekhe/Urtekhini, andAtakhuni, which some scholars identify with Artsakh.[3][4][5][6][a] When speaking about Armenia in hisGeography, the classical historianStrabo refers to an Armenian region which he calls "Orchistene", which is also believed to be a rendering of the name Artsakh.[4][8] Some early Armenian sources spell the name asArdzakh (Արձախ).[9]
Many different proposed etymologies and interpretations of the name Artsakh exist.[9] The 19th-century Armenian scholarGhevont Alishan writes of the name's origin that it "remains unknown, but perhaps it would not be out of place to think that it comes from the name of bushes and treestsakh, in accordance with the land's forested character".[10]David M. Lang connects Artsakh with the name of KingArtaxias I of Armenia (190–159 BC), founder of theArtaxiad dynasty that ruledGreater Armenia.[11] Another scholar proposed that Artsakh consists of the elementsart ("field" in Armenian) andaght (a Classical Armenian word for "black").[12]
Based on the putative attestations of Artsakh as Urtekhe and Orchistene, historian Babken Harutyunyan hypothesizes that the initial vowel in Artsakh was originally an "o" sound (the vowel sounds "o" and "u" are not distinguished in cuneiform) that later underwent a vowel shift to an "a" sound, which is typical ofIndo-European languages.[13] On the basis of this assumption, linguist Lusine Margaryan proposes a connection with the Armenian wordvortʻ (vortʻ in modern pronunciation,ortʻs in the plural accusative case), meaning 'grapevine', and theHurro-Urartian suffix-ekhe/-akh (indicating placenames). According to this hypothesis, the name Artsakh developed from the unattested form *Ortʻsakh and can be interpreted as meaning "place of grapevines, grape garden"․[14] Another hypothesis derives the first part of the name from the rootaghdz/ardz, meaning "rocky, mountainous".[15][b]
In the Middle Ages, Artsakh was occasionally referred to as "LittleSyunik" or "Second Syunik" after the neighboring province.[3] Medieval Armenian authors also referred to it asKhachʻen(kʻ) or, together with neighboringUtik,Arewelkʻ ("East" in Armenian),Arewelitsʻ koghmankʻ ("the eastern regions"),Aghuanitsʻ koghmankʻ ("theCaucasian Albanian regions") or simplyAghuankʻ ("Caucasian Albania").[9][4] The name Artsakh was repopularized among Armenians in the modern era, particularly with the emergence of theNagorno-Karabakh conflict.[16] Artsakh is used by Armenians as a synonym for Karabagh and was used in the official name of the unrecognizedRepublic of Artsakh (also known as the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic).[17]
Part ofa series on the |
|---|
| History of Nagorno- Karabakh |
 |
| Prehistory |
| Antiquity |
| Middle Ages |
| Early Modern Age |
| Modern Age |
Artsakh was located on the easternmost edge of theArmenian Plateau[18] (the eastern part of theLesser Caucasus[4]) and was mostly mountainous and forested.[19] Its area is estimated to have been 11,528 km2.[20] It was bordered by the following Armenian provinces:Utik to the east,Gardman to the northeast, andSyunik to the southwest.[21] The riverArax formed its southern boundary, while theHakari/Aghavno River was its only clear boundary with Syunik.[6] To its east and southeast laid the lowlands between theKura and Arax rivers and theMughan plain, which at one point formed thePaytakaran province of Armenia.[6] Artsakh's two largest rivers were theGargar and theTartar (Trtu in Classical Armenian sources), which flow eastward and eventually join the Kura.[22] The medieval Kingdom of Artsakh (1000–1261) encompassed the entire territory of the classical province and also included Gardman-Parisos to the north and the cantons of Sodk and Gegharkunik of Syunik, located on the shores ofLake Sevan.[23]
Important places in Artsakh (mostly fortified towns) includedParisos,Tigranakert,Sodk,Tsar, Vaykunik,Asteghblur,Goroz andBerdaglukh.[citation needed] The city of Tigranakert, which was first excavated in 2005, is believed to have been founded by KingTigranes the Great of Armenia in the 1st century BC, although conceivably it could also have been founded by KingTigranes I (123–55 BC).[24] Later, in the Caucasian Albanian period, the village ofGyutakan (Armenian: Գյուտական, known as the "Royal Village") became of great importance as the residence ofVachagan III the Pious (467–510 AD), the last King of Caucasian Albania.[citation needed] During early medieval times, the castle ofKhachen served for a considerable time as the center of Artsakh.
According to the anonymous 7th-century Armenian workAshkharatsoyts ("Geography") Artsakh comprised 12 cantons (gavars, variations on spelling exist):[25]
The precise location of many of these cantons is not known for certain, and not all of these names are used by later Armenian authors.[6] Some versions enumerate 13 or 14 cantons.[26]
It is not certain how Artsakh was administered as a sub-national political entity within Armenia.Ghevont Alishan believed that Artsakh was originally a part of Syunik that was later separated and regarded as its own province.[27] According to some Armenian scholars, Artsakh formed a principality with the adjacent canton ofSodk. Conceivably it wasroyal land. Its northern part also comprised the principality of Koght and it is possible that the princes of Koght were the original owners of Artsakh.[25] Under the rule of Caucasian Albania, Artsakh, while often referred to, was not a recognized political entity. By the 9th century it comprised a number of small political units ruled by theAranshahiks,[28] including the principalities ofKhachen in the center andDizak in the south. Only in the 13th century did these two states merge into one – theKingdom of Artsakh.[2]
Anthropological studies show that the current Artsakh (Karabakh)Armenians are the direct physical descendants of the indigenous population of the region.[29][30][31][32] Following the modern consensus among western scholars concerning the origin of theArmenian people, they represent a fusion of the mostlyIndo-European natives of the Armenian Plateau (including Artsakh), and theHurrians of the southernmost Armenian Plateau.[29][30][33][34][35] According to this theory, from earliest times the Armenian Plateau was inhabited by many ethnic groups. The ethnic character of Artsakh may thus have been originally more diverse than it is now.[34][36] It is worth noting thatStrabo described Armenia (which then included also Artsakh and Utik) in the 1st century BC as "monolingual",[8] though this does not necessarily mean that its population consisted exclusively of ethnic Armenians.[16]
According to theEncyclopædia Iranica, the proto-Armenians had settled as far north as theKura River by the 7th century BC.[37] InRobert Hewsen's view, until the 6th–5th centuries BC the proto-Armenians lived only in the western half of the Armenian Plateau (in areas betweenCappadocia, theTigris, theEuphrates, andLake Van) and came to Artsakh and adjacent regions such asSyunik andUtik somewhat later than the central parts of the Armenian Plateau (as late as the 2nd century BC, as a result ofArtaxias I's conquests).[34] But genetical studies debunked these claims and have shown thatArtsakh was part of the original proto-Armenian homeland, and that Armenians are the direct descendants of the people that used to live in the region 7800 years ago. The conclusion from these studies is that even before the bronze age, the population was at the very least, mostlyArmenian.[32][38][39][31] Although little is known of the other people (except the Armenians) that lived in Artsakh and Utik prior to the putative 2nd-century BC where the region was part ofArtaxiad Armenia, Hewsen argues that some names of those tribes (mentioned byGreek,Roman andArmenian authors) demonstrate that some of them were not Armenian, nor Indo-European,[34] and that they assimilated into the Armenians over time.[33]
Bymedieval times, from at least the 9th century, the population of Artsakh had a strong Armeniannational identity.[36] Its people spoke a localEastern Armenian dialect, theArtsakhian dialect (today known as theKarabakh dialect), which was mentioned by 7th-century grammarian Stepanos Syunetsi in his earliest record of the Armenian dialects․[40]
The early Armenian historianMovses Khorenatsi tells of a certainAran, a descendant of the legendary Armenian patriarchHayk throughSisak, who inherited "the plain of Albania [Aghuankʻ] and the mountainous region of the same plain" from the Arax River up to the fortress ofHnarakert (located on the Kura), and was appointed governor (koghmnakal) by KingVagharsak the Parthian.[41][42] Khorenatsi writes that Aran's descendants formed the ruling families of the lands of Utik, Gardman, Tsawdēkʻ and Gargar, and thatAghuankʻ (the Armenian name forCaucasian Albania/Arran) was named so after Aran, since he was calledaghu (meaning "soft, tender, amiable" inArmenian) on account of his good manners.[c][41][42] This story is repeated by later medieval Armenian historians, includingStephen Orbelian andMovses Kaghankatvatsi.[43][44] The latter author identifies Aran as the founder of the original ruling dynasty of Caucasian Albania, theAranshahiks.[45][44] Armenian historians such asBagrat Ulubabyan and Asatur Mnatsakanyan interpret Khorenatsi's story about Aran and his descendants as an allegorical reflection of the historical Armenianness of the lands between the Kura and Arax rivers, i.e. Utik and Artsakh.[34][41]
In 1968, Soviet archaeologists discovered a fragment of a jawbone of a pre-Homo sapiens human dating back possibly to the MiddleAcheulean culture in acave complex near the village ofAzokh in modern-dayNagorno-Karabakh.[46] Other sites of archaeological interest are located in the vicinity ofStepanakert,Khojaly, andAstghashen, where ancientburial mounds containing human and animal remains, tools, pottery and other objects have been discovered.[47] In general, archaeological remains in Artsakh reflect the competing influences from around 800 BC of the neighboring rival states ofUrartu,Assyria, andMannai.[citation needed] If Artsakh is to be identified with the Adakh/Urtekhini/Atakhuni of Urartian cuneiform inscriptions, then it was the target of military campaigns by two Urartian kings:Sarduri II andRusa I.[48]
After the fall of Urartu (6th century BC), most of the region south of the Kura River came under the domination of theMedes, followed by theAchaemenian Persians until 331 BC whenAlexander the Great invaded the region during his wars with the Achaemenids, upsetting its balance of power.[49] In Robert H. Hewsen's view, Artsakh and neighboring Utik became a part of theKingdom of Armenia only after 189 BC, when theArtaxiad dynasty came to power in Armenia.[34] Strabo reports that KingArtaxias I of Armenia (r. 189 – 159 BC) expanded his state in all directions at the expense of his neighbors, conquering the lands ofCaspiane (previously ruled by theMedes) and "Phaunitis" (supposedly a copyist error for Saunities, i.e. Syunik), as well as, presumably, the lands lying in between Syunik and theCaspian Sea, i.e. Artsakh and Utik.[2][34] Many Armenian historians reject this view, arguing that Artsakh and Utik were ruled and populated by Armenians from the earliest days of the formation of the Armenian people.[4][9][34] It is possible that Artsakh had earlier been part ofOrontid Armenia in the 4th–2nd centuries BC rather than under Median rule.[2]
Strabo mentions that the land of Orchistene, frequently identified with Artsakh, "furnishes the most cavalry" of the Armenian provinces.[8] In the Classical Armenian sources, Artsakh is described as a strategic and fortified region.[50][51] In the words of the historianLeo, judging from the Classical Armenian sources, Artsakh, along with Syunik, Utik, Sasun and other remote regions of Greater Armenia, was regarded as a "wild" or "barbarous" province when compared with the center of the kingdom,Ayrarat.[52]
In 301, Armenia was converted toChristianity under theArsacid dynasty of Armenia. The Armenian historianAgathangelos mentioned the princes of Utik and Sodk (which probably comprised Artsakh) among the sixteen Armenian princes who escortedGregory the Illuminator toCaesarea, where he would be enthroned the Patriach of Armenia.[53][non-primary source needed]
Artsakh became a major stronghold for Armenian missionaries to proclaim the Christian Gospel to neighboring countries. In 310 St Grigoris, the grandson of Grigor the Illuminator, was ordained bishop ofIberia and Caucasian Albania in the monastery of Amaras, being just 15 years old at the time.[54] After his martyrdom by the Mazkutian king on the field of Vatnean (nearDerbent), his disciples conveyed his body back to Artsakh and buried him in Amaras, which had been built by Gregory the Illuminator and Grigoris himself. Hence St Grigoris became a patron saint of Artsakh. The historianPavstos Buzand wrote that "... every year the people of that places and cantons gathers there [in Amaras] for the festive commemoration of his valor".[55]
In the 5th century, Christian culture flourished in Artsakh. Around 410Mesrop Mashtots opened the first Armenian school atAmaras.[56] Later, more schools were opened in Artsakh.[57]
The second half of the 4th century saw a series of wars between the Kingdom of Armenia andSassanid Persia. After enduring 34 years of warfare, the Armenian nobility of Artsakh and most other provinces of Armenia revolted, refusing to support the Armenian kingArshak II anymore out ofwar-weariness.[51][58] According to Pavstos Buzand, after bringing Arshak's sonPap to the Armenian throne and defeating the Sassanid invaders with Roman assistance, the Armeniansparapet (supreme commander)Mushegh Mamikonian severely punished the rebelling Armenian provinces, Artsakh included, and brought them back under the control of the Armenian monarchy. Then, in 372 he attacked the Caucasian Albanians and took back from them the neighboring province of Utik, in the process reestablishing the Kura River as the boundary between Armenia and Caucasian Albania.[51]
In 387, according to the terms of thePeace of Acilisene, the Armenian kingdom was partitioned between the Roman and Sasanian empires. Caucasian Albania, as an ally of the Sassanids at the time, gained Armenian territories the right bank of the river Kura up to the Arax, including Artsakh, Gardman and Utik.[59]
Following theBattle of Avarayr (451), in which a united Christian army consisting of Armenians, Georgians, and Caucasian Albanians[60] clashed with the Sassanid army, many of the Armenian nobles retreated to impassable mountains and forests in several provinces, including Artsakh, which became a center for resistance against Sassanid Iran.[61] From the 5th to the 7th centuries Artsakh was ruled by theArmenian noble family ofArranshahiks. Furthermore, the Armenian rulers of Artsakh began to play a considerable role in the affairs of Caucasian Albania.[62][page needed] In 498 in the settlement named Aghuen (in present-dayMardakert region ofNagorno-Karabakh),[63] an Albanian church assembly was held, in the presence of the nobility and princes (azgapetk) of Artsakh and the kingVachagan the Pious, to adopt theConstitution of Aghven, which would arrange relations between the nobility (landlords), clergy and village people.[64]
In the 7th–9th centuries, theSouth Caucasus was dominated by the Arab Caliphates. In the early 9th century two Armenian princes,Sahl Smbatian andEsayi Abu-Muse, revolted against Arab rule and established two independent principalities in Artsakh:Khachen andDizak. At the time the Byzantine emperorConstantine VII addressed letters "to prince of Khachen – to Armenia", being the residence of the Armenian prince Sahl Smbatian.[citation needed] In 852–855 Sahl Smbatian and Esayi Abu-Muse fought against the Abbasid commanderBugha.[65] The latter 28 times unsuccessfully attempted to conquer Ktich Castle (situated near modern-dayTogh inNagorno-Karabakh), the main stronghold of the Armenians of Artsakh. The descendants of Sahl Smbatian through his sonAtrnerseh consolidated their rule over Artsakh over the years; Artsakh was politically unified for three-and-a-half centuries until Hasan the Great partitioned it between two of his sons in 1182.[23] From c. 1000 to 1266 the rulers of Khachen styled themselves "Kings of Albania" or "Kings of Artsakh", but they stopped using the royal title after the death ofHasan Jalal Dawla in the 1260s.[23] The principality eventually split into smaller parts known as theKhamsa Melikdoms of Karabakh, ruled by branches of theHouse of Hasan-Jalalyan. Subsequently, Artsakh existed as a vassal of theKara Koyunlu,Ak Koyunlu,IranianSafavids,Zands,Afsharids, andQajars, until it was ceded toImperial Russia following the outcome of theRusso-Persian War (1804-1813) and the followingTreaty of Gulistan.[2]
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity[...] Artsakh sometimes called Little Siunik or Second Siunik, [...]
The name is mentioned in Urartian inscriptions as 'Ardakh', 'Urdekhe', 'Atakhuni'. The Greek historian Strabo mentions it as 'Orkhistine'[...]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Some assume that Tsavdekʻ and the lands of Urdukhe and Atakhani mentioned in cuneiform inscriptions are synonyms of Artsakh, which is unlikely.
James H . Tashijian... derives the Armenian name from ard (sic, i.e. art) «field» and aghd (sic, i.e. ałt), a classical Armenian word for «black»...
Today, most Armenians use the term Artsakh interchangeably with the term Karabakh in Armenian, Russian and English.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)To shed light on the maternal genetic history of the region, we analyzed the complete mitochondrial genomes of 52 ancient skeletons from present-day Armenia and Artsakh spanning 7,800 years and combined this dataset with 206 mitochondrial genomes of modern Armenians. We also included previously published data of seven neighboring populations (n = 482). Coalescence-based analyses suggest that the population size in this region rapidly increased after the Last Glacial Maximum ca. 18 kya. We find that the lowest genetic distance in this dataset is between modern Armenians and the ancient individuals, as also reflected in both network analyses and discriminant analysis of principal components.
[...]
A total of 19 archaeological sites are represented, covering large parts of Armenia as well as Artsakh (Figure 1), and estimated to be between 300–7800 years old based on contextual dating of artifacts. This time span is accompanied by at least seven well-defined cultural transitions: Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Kura-Araxes, Trialeti-Vanadzor 2, Lchashen-Metsamor, Urartian and Armenian Classical/Medieval (Figure 1).
Our tests suggest that Armenians had no significant mixture with other populations in their recent history and have thus been genetically isolated since the end of the Bronze Age, 3000 years ago.
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| Other | |
.svg)
