Also known as "The Father of Comedy"[7] and "the Prince of Ancient Comedy",[8] Aristophanes wrote plays that often dealt with real-life figures, includingEuripides andAlcibiades, and contemporary events, such as thePeloponnesian War.[6] He has been said to recreate the life of ancient Athens more convincingly than any other author.[9] His plays are characterized by preposterous premises, explicit language, wordplays, and political satire.[10] His powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries;Plato singled out Aristophanes's playThe Clouds asslander that contributed to the trial and subsequent condemning to death ofSocrates,[6][11] although othersatirical playwrights had also caricatured the philosopher.[12]
Aristophanes's second play,The Babylonians (now lost), was denounced byCleon as a slander against the Athenianpolis. It is possible that the case was argued in court, but details of the trial are not recorded and Aristophanes caricatured Cleon mercilessly in his subsequent plays, especiallyThe Knights, the first of many plays that he directed himself. "In my opinion," he says through that play'sChorus, "the author-director of comedies has the hardest job of all."[13]
Theatre of Dionysus, Athens – in Aristophanes's time, the audience probably sat on wooden benches with earth foundations.[14]
AnAthenian citizen, Aristophanes came from thedeme ofKydathenaion, which was part of theAttic tribe (phyle) ofPandionis. His father was Philippus[15] and his mother was Zenodora.[16] In antiquity, his family was assumed to have connections with the island ofAegina.[17] Little is known about Aristophanes's life, his plays being the main source of biographical information. It was conventional inOld Comedy for thechorus to speak on behalf of the author during an address called theparabasis, where some biographical facts can usually be found. These facts, however, relate almost entirely to his career as a dramatist and the plays contain few clear and unambiguous clues about his personal beliefs or his private life. He was a comic poet in an age when it was conventional for the playwright to also serve as the play's director (didaskalos). The term literally means "teacher," referring primarily to his role in training the chorus in rehearsal, but perhaps also covered his relationship with the audience as a commentator on significant issues.[18]
Aristophanes claimed to be writing for a clever and discerning audience,[19] yet he also declared that "other times" would judge the audience according to its reception of his plays.[20] He sometimes boasts of his originality as a dramatist[21] yet his plays consistently espouse opposition to radical new influences in Athenian society. He caricatured leading figures in the arts (notablyEuripides, whose influence on his own work however he once grudgingly acknowledged),[22] in politics (especially the populistCleon), and in philosophy/religion (where Socrates was the most obvious target). Such caricatures seem to imply that Aristophanes was an old-fashioned conservative, yet that view of him leads to contradictions.[23]
It has been argued that Aristophanes produced plays mainly to entertain the audience and to win prestigious competitions.[24] His plays were written for production at the great dramatic festivals of Athens, theLenaia andCity Dionysia, where they were judged and awarded prizes in competition with the works of other comic dramatists. An elaborate series of lotteries, designed to prevent prejudice and corruption, reduced the voting judges at the City Dionysia to just five. These judges probably reflected the mood of the audiences[25] yet there is much uncertainty about the composition of those audiences.[26] The theatres were certainly huge, with seating for at least 10,000 at the Theatre of Dionysus. The day's program at the City Dionysia for example was crowded, with three tragedies and asatyr play ahead of a comedy, but it is possible that many of the poorer citizens (typically the main supporters ofdemagogues like Cleon) occupied the festival holiday with other pursuits. The conservative views expressed in the plays might therefore reflect the attitudes of the dominant group in an unrepresentative audience.[citation needed]
The production process might also have influenced the views expressed in the plays. Throughout most of Aristophanes's career, the Chorus was essential to a play's success and it was recruited and funded by achoregus, a wealthy citizen appointed to the task by one of thearchons. A choregus could regard his personal expenditure on the Chorus as a civic duty and a public honour, but Aristophanes showed inThe Knights that wealthy citizens might regard civic responsibilities as punishment imposed on them by demagogues and populists like Cleon.[27] Thus the political conservatism of the plays may reflect the views of the wealthiest section of Athenian society, on whose generosity all dramatists depended for putting on their plays.[28]
When Aristophanes's first playThe Banqueters was produced, Athens was an ambitious, imperial power and thePeloponnesian War was only in its fourth year. His plays often express pride in the achievement of the older generation (thevictors at Marathon)[29][30] yet they are not jingoistic, and they are staunchly opposed to the war with Sparta. The plays are particularly scathing in criticism of war profiteers, among whom populists such as Cleon figure prominently. By the time his last play was produced (around 386 BC) Athens had been defeated in war, its empire had been dismantled and it had undergone a transformation from being the political to the intellectual centre of Greece.[31] Aristophanes was part of this transformation and he shared in the intellectual fashions of the period—the structure of his plays evolves from Old Comedy until, in his last surviving play,Wealth II, it more closely resemblesNew Comedy. However it is uncertain whether he led or merely responded to changes in audience expectations.[32]
Aristophanes won second prize at theCity Dionysia in 427 BC with his first playThe Banqueters (now lost). He won first prize there with his next play,The Babylonians (also now lost). It was usual for foreign dignitaries to attend the City Dionysia, andThe Babylonians caused some embarrassment for the Athenian authorities since it depicted the cities of theDelian League as slaves grinding at a mill.[33] Some influential citizens, notablyCleon, reviled the play as slander against thepolis and possibly took legal action against the author. The details of the trial are unrecorded but, speaking through the hero of his third playThe Acharnians (staged at theLenaia, where there were few or no foreign dignitaries), the poet carefully distinguishes between thepolis and the real targets of his acerbic wit:
People among us, and I don't mean the polis, Remember this – I don't mean the polis – But wicked little men of a counterfeit kind....
Aristophanes repeatedly savages Cleon in his later plays. But these satirical diatribes appear to have had no effect on Cleon's political career—a few weeks after the performance ofThe Knights—a play full of anti-Cleon jokes—Cleon was elected to the prestigious board of ten generals.[35] Cleon also seems to have had no real power to limit or control Aristophanes: the caricatures of him continued up to and even beyond his death.
In the absence of clear biographical facts about Aristophanes, scholars make educated guesses based on interpretation of the language in the plays.Inscriptions and summaries or comments by Hellenistic and Byzantine scholars can also provide useful clues. We know from a combination of these sources,[36] and especially from comments inThe Knights[37] andThe Clouds,[38] that Aristophanes's first three plays were not directed by him; they were instead directed by Callistratus and Philoneides,[39] an arrangement that seemed to suit Aristophanes since he appears to have used these same directors in many later plays as well (Philoneides for example later directedThe Frogs and he was also credited, perhaps wrongly, with directingThe Wasps).[40] Aristophanes's use of directors complicates our reliance on the plays as sources of biographical information, because apparent self-references might have been made with reference to his directors instead. Thus, for example, a statement by the chorus inThe Acharnians[41] seems to indicate that the "poet" had a close, personal association with the island ofAegina. Similarly, the hero inThe Acharnians complains about Cleon "dragging me into court" over "last year's play."[42]
Comments made by the Chorus referring to Aristophanes inThe Clouds[43] have been interpreted as evidence that he can hardly have been more than 18 years old when his first playThe Banqueters was produced.[44] The second parabasis inWasps[45] appears to indicate that he reached some kind of temporary accommodation with Cleon following either the controversy overThe Babylonians or a subsequent controversy overThe Knights.[46] It has been inferred[2] from statements inThe Clouds andPeace that Aristophanes was prematurely bald.[47]
Aristophanes was probably victorious at least once at the City Dionysia, withBabylonians in 427,[48] and at least three times at the Lenaia, withThe Acharnians in 425,Knights in 424, andFrogs in 405.Frogs in fact won the unique distinction of a repeat performance at a subsequent festival. A son of Aristophanes, Araros, was also a comic poet and he could have been heavily involved in the production of his father's playWealth II in 388.[49] Araros is also thought to have been responsible for the posthumous performances of the now lost playsAeolosicon II andCocalus,[50] and it is possible that the last of these won the prize at the City Dionysia in 387.[51] It appears that a second son, Philippus, was twice victorious at the Lenaia[52] and he could have directed some ofEubulus's comedies.[53] A third son was called eitherNicostratus or Philetaerus,[54] and a man by the latter name appears in the catalogue of Lenaia victors with two victories, the first probably in the late 370s.[55]
Aristophanes survivedThe Peloponnesian War, two oligarchic revolutions and two democratic restorations; this has been interpreted as evidence that he was not actively involved in politics, despite his highly political plays.[56] He was probably appointed to theCouncil of Five Hundred for a year at the beginning of the fourth century, but such appointments were very common indemocratic Athens.[57]
Plato'sThe Symposium appears to be a useful source of biographical information about Aristophanes, but its reliability is open to doubt.[58] It purports to be a record of conversations at a dinner party at which both Aristophanes and Socrates are guests, held some seven years after the performance ofThe Clouds, the play in which Socrates was cruelly caricatured. One of the guests,Alcibiades, even quotes from the play when teasing Socrates over his appearance[59] and yet there is no indication of any ill-feeling between Socrates and Aristophanes. Plato's Aristophanes is in fact a genial character and this has been interpreted as evidence of Plato's own friendship with him[60] (their friendship appears to be corroborated by an epitaph for Aristophanes,reputedly written by Plato, in which the playwright's soul is compared to an eternal shrine for theGraces).[61] Plato was only a boy when the events inThe Symposium are supposed to have occurred and it is possible that his Aristophanes is in fact based on a reading of the plays. For example, conversation among the guests turns to the subject of Love and Aristophanes explains his notion of it in terms of an amusing allegory, a device he often uses in his plays. He is represented as suffering an attack ofhiccups and this might be a humorous reference to the crude physical jokes in his plays. He tells the other guests that he is quite happy to be thought amusing but he is wary of appearing ridiculous.[62][63] This fear of being ridiculed is consistent with his declaration inThe Knights that he embarked on the career of comic playwright warily after witnessing the public contempt and ridicule that other dramatists had incurred.[64]
The language of Aristophanes's plays, and in Old Comedy generally, was valued by ancient commentators as a model of theAttic dialect. The oratorQuintilian believed that the charm and grandeur of the Attic dialect made Old Comedy an example for orators to study and follow, and he considered it inferior in these respects only to the works of Homer.[65][66] A revival of interest in the Attic dialect may have been responsible for the recovery and circulation of Aristophanes's plays during the fourth and fifth centuries AD, resulting in their survival today.[65] In Aristophanes's plays, the Attic dialect is couched in verse and his plays can be appreciated for their poetic qualities.
For Aristophanes's contemporaries the works ofHomer andHesiod formed the cornerstones of Hellenic history and culture. Thus poetry had a moral and social significance that made it an inevitable topic of comic satire.[67] Aristophanes was very conscious of literary fashions and traditions and his plays feature numerous references to other poets. These include not only rival comic dramatists such asEupolis andHermippus[68] and predecessors such asMagnes,Crates andCratinus,[69] but also tragedians, notablyAeschylus,Sophocles andEuripides, all three of whom are mentioned in e.g.The Frogs. Aristophanes was the equal of these great tragedians in his subtle use of lyrics.[70] He appears to have modelled his approach to language on that of Euripides in particular, so much so that the comic dramatistCratinus labelled him a 'Euripidaristophanist' addicted to hair-splitting niceties.[22]
A full appreciation of Aristophanes's plays requires an understanding of the poetic forms he employed with virtuoso skill, and of their different rhythms and associations.[71] There were three broad poetic forms: iambic dialogue, tetrameter verses and lyrics:[72]
Iambic dialogue: Aristophanes achieves an effect resembling natural speech through the use of theiambic trimeter (corresponding to the effects achieved by English poets such as Shakespeare using iambic pentameters). His realistic use of the meter[73][74] makes it ideal for both dialogue and soliloquy, as for instance in the prologue, before the arrival of the Chorus, when the audience is introduced to the main issues in the plot.The Acharnians opens with these three lines by the hero,[75] Dikaiopolis (rendered here in English as iambic pentameters):
How many are the things that vex my heart! Pleasures are few, so very few – just four – But stressful things are manysandthousandsandheaps!
Here Aristophanes employs a frequent device, arranging the syntax so that the final word in a line comes as a comic climax.[76] The hero's pleasures are so few he can number them (τέτταρα, four) but his causes for complaint are so many they beggar numerical description and he must invent his own word for them (ψαμμακοσιογάργαρα, literally "sandhundredheaps", here paraphrased "manysandthousandsandheaps"). The use of inventedcompound words is another comic device frequently found in the plays.[77][78]
Tetrameter catalectic verses: These are long lines ofanapests,trochees or iambs (where each line is ideally measured in fourdipodes or pairs of feet), used in various situations within each play such as:
formal debates oragons between characters (typically in anapestic rhythm);
excited dialogue or heated argument (typically trochaic rhythm, the same as in early tragedy);
long speeches declaimed by the Chorus inparabases (in either anapestic or trochaic rhythms);
informal debates barely above the level of ordinary dialogue (typically iambic).
Anapestic rhythms are naturally jaunty (as in manylimericks) and trochaic meter is suited to rapid delivery (the word "trochee" is in fact derived fromtrechein, "to run", as demonstrated for example by choruses who enter at speed, often in aggressive mood)[79] However, even though both these rhythms can seem to "bowl along"[73] Aristophanes often varies them through use of complex syntax and substituted meters, adapting the rhythms to the requirements of serious argument. In an anapestic passage inThe Frogs,[80] for instance, the character Aeschylus presents a view of poetry that is supposed to be serious but which leads to a comic interruption by the god, Dionysus:
AES.:It wasOrpheus singing who taught us religion and how wrong people are when they kill, And we learned fromMusaeus medicinal cures and the science of divination. If it's farming you want,Hesiod knows it all, when to plant, when to harvest. How godlike Homer got to be famous, I'll tell if you ask: he taught us what all good men should know, Discipline, fortitude, battle-readiness.DIO.: But no-one taught Pantocles – yesterday He was marching his men up and down on parade when the crest of his helmet fell off!
The rhythm begins at a typical anapestic gallop, slows down to consider the revered poets Hesiod and Homer, then gallops off again to its comic conclusion at the expense of the unfortunate Pantocles. Such subtle variations in rhythm are common in the plays, allowing for serious points to be made while still whetting the audience's appetite for the next joke.
Lyrics: Almost nothing is known about the music that accompanied Greek lyrics, and the meter is often so varied and complex that it is difficult for modern readers or audiences to get a feel for the intended effects, yet Aristophanes still impresses with the charm and simplicity of his lyrics.[73] Some of the most memorable and haunting lyrics are dignified hymns set free of the comic action.[81] In the example below, taken fromThe Wasps, the lyric is merely a comic interlude and the rhythm is steadily trochaic. The syntax in the original Greek is natural and unforced and it was probably accompanied by brisk and cheerful music, gliding to a concluding pun at the expense of Amynias, who is thought to have lost his fortune gambling.[82]
[83]The pun here in English translation (Penestes–penniless) is a weak version of the GreekpunΠενέσταισι-πενέστης,Penéstaisi-penéstĕs, "destitute". Many of the puns in the plays are based on words that are similar rather than identical, and it has been observed that there could be more of them than scholars have yet been able to identify.[84] Others are based on double meanings. Sometimes entire scenes are constructed on puns, as inThe Acharnians with theMegarian farmer and his pigs:[85] the Megarian farmer defies the Athenian embargo against Megarian trade, and tries to trade his daughters disguised as pigs, except "pig" was ancient slang for "vagina". Since theembargo against Megara was the pretext for the Peloponnesian War, Aristophanes naturally concludes that this whole mess happened because of "three cunts".
It can be argued that the most important feature of the language of the plays is imagery, particularly the use of similes, metaphors and pictorial expressions.[76] InThe Knights, for example, the ears of a character with selective hearing are represented as parasols that open and close.[86] InThe Frogs,Aeschylus is said to compose verses in the manner of a horse rolling in a sandpit.[87] Some plays feature revelations of human perfectibility that are poetic rather than religious in character, such as the marriage of the hero Pisthetairos toZeus's paramour inThe Birds and the "recreation" of old Athens, crowned with roses, at the end ofThe Knights.
The plays of Aristophanes are the only full-length examples of the genre of Old Comedy to have survived from antiquity. This makes them centrally important to modern understandings of the genre. The themes of Old Comedy included:
Inclusive comedy: Old Comedy provided a variety of entertainments for a diverse audience. It accommodated a serious purpose, light entertainment, hauntingly beautiful lyrics, the buffoonery of puns and invented words, obscenities, disciplined verse, wildly absurd plots and a formal, dramatic structure.
Fantasy and absurdity: Fantasy in Old Comedy is unrestricted and impossibilities are ignored.[88] Situations are developed logically to absurd conclusions, an approach to humour that is echoed for instance in the works ofLewis Carroll andEugène Ionesco (theTheatre of the Absurd).[89] The crazy costume worn by Dionysus inThe Frogs is typical of an absurd result obtained on logical grounds—he wears a woman's saffron-coloured tunic because effeminacy is an aspect of his divinity, buskin boots because he is interested in reviving the art of tragedy, and a lion skin cape because, like Heracles, his mission leads him intoHades. Absurdities develop logically from initial premises in a plot. InThe Knights for instance, Cleon's corrupt service to the people of Athens is originally depicted as a household relationship in which the slave dupes his master. The introduction of a rival, who is not a member of the household, leads to an absurd shift in the metaphor, so that Cleon and his rival becomeerastai competing for the affections of aneromenos, hawkers of oracles competing for the attention of a credulous public, athletes in a race for approval and orators competing for the popular vote.
The resourceful hero: In Aristophanic comedy, the hero is an independent-minded and self-reliant individual. He has something of the ingenuity of Homer'sOdysseus and much of the shrewdness of the farmer idealized inHesiod'sWorks and Days, subjected to corrupt leaders and unreliable neighbours. Typically he devises a complicated and highly fanciful escape from an intolerable situation.[90] Thus Dikaiopolis inThe Acharnians contrives aprivate peace treaty with the Spartans; Bdelucleon inThe Wasps turns his own house into a private law court in order to keep his jury-addicted father safely at home; Trygaeus inPeace flies to Olympus on a giant dung beetle to obtain an end to the Peloponnesian War; Pisthetairus inBirds sets off to establish his own colony and becomes instead the ruler of the bird kingdom and a rival to the gods.
The resourceful cast: The numerous surprising developments in an Aristophanic plot, the changes in scene, and the farcical comings and goings of minor characters towards the end of a play, were managed according to theatrical convention with only three principal actors (a fourth actor, often the leader of the chorus, was permitted to deliver short speeches).[91] Songs and addresses to the audience by the Chorus gave the actors hardly enough time off-stage to draw breath and to prepare for changes in scene.
Complex structure: The action of an Aristophanic play obeyed a crazy logic of its own and yet it always unfolded within a formal, dramatic structure that was repeated with minor variations from one play to another. The different, structural elements are associated with different poetic meters, which are generally lost in English translations.
The structural elements of a typical Aristophanic plot can be summarized as follows:
prologue
an introductory scene with a dialogue and/or soliloquy addressed to the audience, expressed iniambic trimeter and explaining the situation that is to be resolved in the play
parodos
the arrival of the chorus, dancing and singing, sometimes followed by a choreographed skirmish with one or more actors, often expressed in long lines of tetrameters
symmetrical scenes
passages featuring songs and declaimed verses in long lines of tetrameters, arranged symmetrically in two sections such that each half resembles the other in meter and line length; the agon and parabasis can be considered specific instances of symmetrical scenes:
parabasis
verses through which the Chorus addresses the audience directly, firstly in the middle of the play and again near the end (see the section below,Parabasis)
agon
a formal debate that decides the outcome of the play, typically in anapestic tetrameter, though iambs are sometimes used to delineate inferior arguments;[92]
episodes
sections of dialogue in iambic trimeter, often in a succession of scenes featuring minor characters towards the end of a play
songs ('strophes'/'antistrophes' or 'odes'/'antodes')
often in symmetrical pairs where each half has the same meter and number of lines as the other, used as transitions between other structural elements, or between scenes while actors change costume, and often commenting on the action
exodus
the departure of the Chorus and the actors, in song and dance celebrating the hero's victory and sometimes celebrating a symbolic marriage.
The rules of competition did not prevent a playwright arranging and adjusting these elements to suit his particular needs.[93] InThe Acharnians andPeace, for example, there is no formal agon whereas inThe Clouds there are two agons.
The parabasis is an address to the audience by the chorus or chorus leader while the actors leave or have left the stage. In this role, the chorus is sometimes out of character, as the author's voice, and sometimes in character, although these capacities are often difficult to distinguish. Generally the parabasis occurs somewhere in the middle of a play and often there is a second parabasis towards the end. The elements of a parabasis have been defined and named by scholars but it is probable that Aristophanes's own understanding was less formal.[94] The selection of elements can vary from play to play and it varies considerably within plays between first and second parabasis. The early plays (The Acharnians toThe Birds) are fairly uniform in their approach however and the following elements of a parabasis can be found within them.
kommation
This is a brief prelude, comprising short lines and often including a valediction to the departing actors, such asἴτε χαίροντες (Go rejoicing!).
parabasis proper
This is usually a defense of the author's work and it includes criticism of the audience's attitude. It is declaimed in long lines of 'anapestic tetrameters'. Aristophanes himself refers to the parabasis proper only as 'anapests'.
pnigos
Sometimes known as 'a choker', it comprises a few short lines appended to the parabasis proper as a kind of rapid patter (it has been suggested that some of the effects achieved in a pnigos can be heard in "The Lord Chancellor's Nightmare Song", in act 2 of Gilbert and Sullivan'sIolanthe).[95]
epirrhematic syzygies
These are symmetrical scenes that mirror each other in meter and number of lines. They form part of the first parabasis and they often comprise the entire second parabasis. They are characterized by the following elements:
strophe orode
These are lyrics in a variety of meters, sung by the Chorus in the first parabasis as an invocation to the gods and as a comic interlude in the second parabasis.
epirrhema
These are usually long lines of trochaic tetrameters. Broadly political in their significance, they were probably spoken by the leader of the Chorus in character.[96]
antistrophe orantode
These are songs that mirror the strophe/ode in meter, length and function.
antepirrhema
This is another declaimed passage and it mirrors the epirrhema in meter, length and function.
The Wasps is thought to offer the best example of a conventional approach[97] and the elements of a parabasis can be identified and located in that play as follows.
Textual corruption is probably the reason for the absence of the antistrophe in the second parabasis.[99]However, there are several variations from the ideal even within the early plays. For example, the parabasis proper inThe Clouds (lines 518–562) is composed in eupolidean meter rather than in anapests[100] and the second parabasis includes a kommation but it lacks strophe, antistrophe and antepirrhema (The Clouds lines 1113–1130). The second parabasis inThe Acharnians lines 971–999[101] can be considered a hybrid parabasis/song (i.e. the declaimed sections are merely continuations of the strophe and antistrophe)[102] and, unlike the typical parabasis, it seems to comment on actions that occur on stage during the address. An understanding of Old Comedy conventions such as the parabasis is necessary for a proper understanding of Aristophanes's plays; on the other hand, a sensitive appreciation of the plays is necessary for a proper understanding of the conventions.
The tragic dramatistsSophocles andEuripides died near the end of the Peloponnesian War, and the art of tragedy thereafter ceased to develop, yet comedy continued to evolve after the defeat of Athens, and it is possible that it did so because, in Aristophanes, it had a master craftsman who lived long enough to help usher it into a new age.[103] Indeed, according to one ancient source (Platonius,c. 9th century AD), one of Aristophanes's last plays,Aioliskon, had neither a parabasis nor any choral lyrics (making it a type of Middle Comedy), whileKolakos anticipated all the elements of New Comedy, including a rape and a recognition scene.[104] Aristophanes seems to have had some appreciation of his formative role in the development of comedy, as indicated by his comment inClouds that his audience would be judged by other times according to its reception of his plays.[105]Clouds was awarded third (i.e. last) place after its original performance and the text that has come down to the modern age was a subsequent draft that Aristophanes intended to be read rather than acted.[106] The circulation of his plays in manuscript extended their influence beyond the original audience, over whom in fact they seem to have had little or no practical influence: they did not affect the career ofCleon, they failed to persuade the Athenians to pursue an honourable peace with Spartans, and it is not clear that they were instrumental in the trial and execution of Socrates, whose death probably resulted from public animosity towards the philosopher's disgraced associates (such asAlcibiades),[107] exacerbated of course by his own intransigence during the trial.[108] The plays, in manuscript form, have been put to some surprising uses—as indicatedearlier, they were used in the study of rhetoric on the recommendation ofQuintilian and by students of the Attic dialect in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries AD. It is possible that Plato sent copies of the plays to Dionysius of Syracuse so that he might learn about Athenian life and government.[109]
Latin translations of the plays byAndreas Divus (Venice 1528) were circulated widely throughout Europe in the Renaissance and these were soon followed by translations and adaptations in modern languages.Racine, for example, drewLes Plaideurs (1668) fromThe Wasps.Goethe (who turned to Aristophanes for a warmer and more vivid form of comedy than he could derive from readings of Terence and Plautus) adapted a short playDie Vögel fromThe Birds for performance in Weimar. Aristophanes has appealed to both conservatives and radicals in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries—Anatoly Lunacharsky, first Commissar of Enlightenment for the USSR in 1917, declared that the ancient dramatist would have a permanent place in proletarian theatre and yet conservative, Prussian intellectuals interpreted Aristophanes as a satirical opponent of social reform.[110] The avant-gardist stage-directorKarolos Koun directed a version ofThe Birds under the Acropolis in 1959 that established a trend in modern Greek history of breaking taboos through the voice of Aristophanes.[111]
The plays have a significance that goes beyond their artistic function, as historical documents that open the window on life and politics inclassical Athens, in which respect they are perhaps as important as the writings ofThucydides. The artistic influence of the plays is immeasurable. They have contributed to the history of European theatre and that history in turn shapes our understanding of the plays. Thus for example the operettas ofGilbert and Sullivan can give us insights into Aristophanes's plays[112] and similarly the plays can give us insights into the operettas.[113] The plays are a source of famous sayings, such as "By words the mind is winged."[114]
Listed below are some of the many works influenced (more or less) by Aristophanes.
Theromantic poet,Percy Shelley, wrote a comic, lyrical drama (Swellfoot the Tyrant) in imitation of Aristophanes's playThe Frogs after he was reminded of the Chorus in that play by a herd of pigs passing to market under the window of his lodgings in San Giuliano, Italy.[115]
Aristophanes (particularly in reference toThe Clouds) is mentioned frequently by the character Menedemos in theHellenic Traders series of novels byH. N. Turteltaub.
A liberal version of the comedies have been published incomic book format, initially by "Agrotikes Ekdoseis" during the 1980s and republished over the years by other companies. The plot was written by Tasos Apostolidis and the sketches were of George Akokalidis. The stories feature either Aristophanes narrating them, directing the play, or evenas a character inside one of his stories.
Acropolis Now is a comedy radio show for the BBC set in Ancient Greece. It features Aristophanes, Socrates and many other famous Greeks. (Not to be confused with the Australian sitcom of the same name.) Aristophanes is characterised as a celebrity playwright, and most of his plays have the title formula:One of Our [e.g]Slaves has an Enormous Knob (a reference to the exaggerated appendages worn by Greek comic actors)
Aristophanes Against the World was a radio play by Martyn Wade and broadcast onBBC Radio 4. Loosely based on several of his plays, it featuredClive Merrison as Aristophanes.
The Wasps, radio play adapted by David Pountney, music byVaughan Williams, recorded 26–28 July 2005, Albert Halls, Bolton, in association with BBC, under Halle label
Satiric Dances for a Comedy by Aristophanes is a three-movement piece for concert band composed byNorman Dello Joio. It was commissioned in commemoration of the Bicentennial of 19 April 1775 (the start of theAmerican Revolutionary War) by the Concord (Massachusetts) Band. The commission was funded by the Town ofConcord and assistance was given by the Eastern National Park and Monument Association in cooperation with theNational Park Service.
E. Joannides used Aristophanes's comedies as the main source of conversational phrases for his famous Ancient Greek phrasebookSprechen Sie Attisch? (Do You Speak Attic Greek?).[118][119][120]
Alan H. Sommerstein believes that although there are good translations of Aristophanes's comedies, none could be flawless, "for there is much truth in the paradox that the only really perfect translation is the original."[121] Nevertheless, there are competent, respectable translations in many languages. Despite the fact that translations of Aristophanes may not be perfect, "the reception of Aristophanes has gained extraordinary momentum as a topic of academic interest in the last few years."[122]
Table of contents of a 1498 edition, which contains all of Aristophanes's surviving plays except forThesmophoriazusae andLysistrata
Most of these are traditionally referred to by abbreviations of theirLatin titles; Latin remains a customary language of scholarship in classical studies.
The Acharnians (ἈχαρνεῖςAkharneis; AtticἈχαρνῆς;Acharnenses), 425 BC
The Knights (ἹππεῖςHippeis; AtticἹππῆς; Latin:Equites), 424 BC
The Clouds (ΝεφέλαιNephelai; Latin:Nubes), original 423 BC, incomplete revised version from 419 to 416 BC survives
^Some Roman-era inscriptions erroneously make Aristophanes theson of "Philippides", a name which by itself means "son of Philippos".[1]
^Although many artists' renderings of Aristophanes portray him with flowing curly hair, several jests in his plays indicate that he may have been prematurely bald.[2]
^The first nine of Aristophanes's extant plays belong to Old Comedy, while his last two are seen as examples ofMiddle Comedy (seeThorburn 2005, p. 67), marking the shift towards what would become known asNew Comedy (seeRoman & Roman 2010, p. 83)
^Sommerstein, Alan (ed).Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds. Penguin Classics 1973, p. 37
^L. P. E. Parker,The Songs of Aristophanes, Oxford, 1997, p. 36
^Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 2, F. W. Hall and W. M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts,Frogs lines 1032–1038
^Greek Drama, Peter Levi, inThe Oxford History of the Classical World edited by J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray, Oxford University Press 1986, p. 175
^Comedy E. Handley in 'The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I', P. Easterling, R. MacGregor Walker Knox, E. Kenney (eds), p. 360
^"Greek Drama" Peter Levi, inThe Oxford History of the Classical World J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray (eds), Oxford University Press 1986, p. 176
^E. W. Handley, 'Comedy' inThe Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature,P. E. Easterling andBernard Knox (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 400
^Plato'sApology, Benjamin Jowett (trans), Wikisource copy:s:Apology (Plato)#33 (section 33)
^Aristophanes (2000).Clouds. Translated by Peter Meineck. Ian Storey (Introduction). Hackett Publishing. p. x.
^Edith Hall and Amanda Wrigley (2007).Aristophanes in Performance 421 BC – AD 2007: Peace, Birds and Frogs. Oxford: Legenda. pp. 9–12.
^Politics and Aristophanes: watchword Caution! by Gonda Van Steen in 'The Cambridge Companion to Greek and Roman Theatre' Marianne McDonald and J. Michael Walton (eds), Cambridge University Press 2007, p. 109
^e.g.Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A. Sommerstein, Penguin Classics 1975, p. 37
^"W. S. Gilbert: A Mid-Victorian Aristophanes" inW. S. Gilbert: A Century of Scholarship and Commentary, John Bush Jones (ed), New York University Press 1970
^Birds, l.1447–1448; quotation as translated inMacmillan Dictionary of Political Quotations
^Note on Oedipus Tyrannus by Mrs Shelley, quoted inShelley: Poetical Works Thomas Hutchinson (ed), Oxford University Press 1970, p. 410
^GREEN, ROBERT A. “Aristophanes, Rameau and ‘Platée.’” Cambridge Opera Journal, vol. 23, no. 1/2, 2011, pp. 1–26. JSTOR,http://www.jstor.org/stable/41494572. Accessed 6 Oct. 2024.
^Joannides, E. (2012).Ἆρ’ ἀττικίζεις; – Sprechen Sie Attisch? Moderne Konversation in altgriechischer Umgangssprache (in German and Ancient Greek) (Revised ed.). Hamburg: Buske.ISBN978-3875486377.
^On Translating Aristophanes: Ends and Means, Alan H. Sommerstein, Greece & Rome, Oct. 1973, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Oct. 1973), pp. 140–154 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association.
^Transposing Aristophanes: The Theory and Practice of Translating Aristophanic Lyric, James Robson, Second Series, Vol. 59, No. 2 (October 2012), pp. 214–244 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association.
*Slater, Niall (2016). "Aristophanes in antiquity: Reputation and reception". In Walsh, Philip (ed.).Brill's Companion to the Reception of Aristophanes. Brill.ISBN9789004324657.
Silk, M. S. (2002),Aristophanes and the Definition of Comedy, Oxford University Press
Van Steen G (2007), "Politics and Aristophanes: watchword Caution!", in McDonald M, Walton JM (eds.),The Cambridge Companion to Greek and Roman Theatre, Cambridge University Press
Welsh, D. (1983), "IG ii2 2343, Philonides and Aristophanes' Banqueters",Classical Quarterly, vol. 33
David, Ephraim (1984).Aristophanes and Athenian Society of the Early Fourth Century B.C. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.
Edwards, Anthony T. (1991). "Aristophanes' comic poetics".Transactions of the American Philological Association.121:157–179.doi:10.2307/284450.JSTOR284450.
Lee, Jae Num. "Scatology in Continental Satirical Writings from Aristophanes to Rabelais" and "English Scatological Writings from Skelton to Pope." Swift and Scatological Satire. Albuquerque: U of New Mexico P, 1971. 7–22; 23–53.
Loscalzo, Donato (2010).Aristofane e la coscienza felice. Edizioni dell'Orso.ISBN978-88-6274-245-0.
Aristophanes and the Comic Hero by Cedric H. Whitman Author(s) of Review: H. Lloyd Stow The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 87, No. 1 (Jan. 1966), pp. 111–113
MacDowell, Douglas M. (1995).Aristophanes and Athens: An Introduction to the Plays. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0198721598.
Murray, Gilbert (1933).Aristophanes: A Study. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Platter, Charles (2006).Aristophanes and the Carnival of Genres. JHUP.ISBN978-0-8018-8527-3.
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