| Archduke Joseph of Austria | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Archduke of Austria, Royal Prince of Hungary and Bohemia | |||||
 Portrait byMiklós Barabás (1846) | |||||
| 103thPalatine of the Kingdom of Hungary | |||||
| In office 20 September 1795 – 13 January 1847 | |||||
| Monarchs | Francis I Ferdinand V | ||||
| Predecessor | Archduke Alexander Leopold | ||||
| Successor | Archduke Stephen | ||||
| Born | (1776-03-09)9 March 1776 Florence,Grand Duchy of Tuscany | ||||
| Died | 13 January 1847(1847-01-13) (aged 70) Buda,Kingdom of Hungary | ||||
| Burial | |||||
| Spouses | |||||
| Issue |
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| House | Habsburg-Lorraine | ||||
| Father | Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor | ||||
| Mother | Maria Luisa of Spain | ||||
| Religion | Roman Catholicism | ||||
| Signature |  | ||||
Archduke Joseph Anton of Austria (German:Erzherzog Joseph Anton Johann Baptist von Österreich;Hungarian:Habsburg József Antal János Baptista főherceg, József nádor; 9 March 1776 – 13 January 1847) was the 103rd and penultimatepalatine of Hungary who served for over fifty years from 1796 to 1847, after a period asgovernor in 1795.
The latter half of his service coincided with theHungarian Reform Era, and he mediated between the government ofFrancis I, King of Hungary and Holy Roman Emperor and theHungarian nobility, representing the country's interests inVienna. He played a prominent role in the development ofPest as a cultural and economic centre; theneoclassical buildings constructed on his initiative define the city's modern appearance. Thelandscaping of theCity Park ofBudapest andMargaret Island happened under his supervision. He supportedpublic education,technical higher education,the arts, the construction ofrailroads, and variousprogressive-thinking societies and associations. He donated substantially towards the establishment of theHungarian National Museum, theHungarian Academy of Sciences, and theNational Széchényi Library.
He was anarchduke ofAustria and a prince ofBohemia,Hungary, andTuscany as the son ofLeopold II, Holy Roman Emperor. The Hungarian or Palatinal branch of theHouse of Habsburg-Lorraine descends from him. In theImperial Army, and later in theAustrian Army, he bore the rank ofFeldmarschall.
Archduke Joseph of Austria was born on 9 March 1776 inFlorence,Grand Duchy of Tuscany as the ninth child and seventh son ofLeopold I, Grand Duke of Tuscany andInfantaMaria Luisa of Spain.[1][2] He had fifteen siblings, two of whomdied in infancy. Through his father, he was a grandson ofMaria Theresa, Holy Roman EmpressDowager,Queen Regnant ofBohemia andHungary.[1] The family lived in thePalazzo Pitti in Florence, spent summers in theVilla del Poggio Imperiale or theVilla di Poggio a Caiano, and some winters inPisa.[3]
The grand ducal couple fostered a warm, intimate family environment, raising their children according to the age's modern principles. They paid attention to theirdiet and regularphysical exercise, incorporating ideas fromLocke andRousseau in addition to a traditional courtly upbringing that emphasisedetiquette and royal duty.[4] Until the age of four, the children were entrusted to German-, Italian-, and French-speaking women, who were only allowed to use their respectivemother tongues. Instruction in reading and writing started at the age of three, and language classes a year later.[5]
Following their grandmother Maria Theresa's instructions, the family's life revolved around Catholicism. Every day, the children listened to religious texts while dressing, attendedmass, studied thecatechism, and prayed therosary. The Empress followed their development closely through her correspondence with their parents and educational staff.[6]
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Maria Theresa appointed the young archdukes'ajo (governor), CountFranz de Paula Karl von Colloredo-Waldsee [de], assisted bysottoajo (vice-governor)Major MarquessFederigo Manfredini andtutors.[7] Grand Duke Leopold and Colloredo aimed to teach the children to lead a simple life, be humble, dutiful, and devoted to the well-being of their subjects. In their studies, they were taught to be inquisitive and independent.[7] The Grand Duke wished for his children to live as free and unrestricted as possible, while theajo expected them to be graceful, serious, and disciplined beyond their years, leading to disagreements.[8] Archduke Joseph was only under Colloredo's guidance for two and a half years; when he left in 1782, Manfredini was promoted to his place, who allowed his charges more freedom.[9][10]
The preparatory stage of Joseph's education lasted until the age of nine, by when he had learned to speak and write in German, French, Italian, andLatin.[5][10] He received the traditional education of Austrian archdukes, learning etiquette andconduite (the behaviour expected inhigh society),genealogy, geography, history,ethics, law,natural law,political science, and mathematics.[5] Joseph had a preference for history,archaeology, andnatural history,[11] and was not as apt in mathematics.[10] It was important for his parents that all of their children learned some form ofmanual labour; Joseph was instructed in gardening,botany, andhorticulture.[11] He memorised thebinomial nomenclature andtaxonomy of over six thousand plants.[10]
The teacher to have the greatest impact on the children was the ex-Jesuit[12] CountSigismund Anton von Hohenwarth.[11] His pedagogical philosophy was based onEnlightenment ideas, teaching that a person's “true vocation” was to strive for the happiness of themselves and others, which could only be achieved in a society. He analysed examples of good and bad statesmanship with his students, focussing on the importance of institutions,legislation, education, the sciences, the arts, and different aspects of the economy. He taught them to assess all matters objectively.[13]
Archduke Joseph's father, Grand Duke Leopold, washeir presumptive to the thrones of his brother,Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor. When he died in 1790, Leopold and his family moved to Vienna,[2][14] where Joseph and his brothers arrived on 13 May. With his approaching fifteenth birthday, the final, three-year stage of his education started. Focused onmilitary training andpolitical science, this included subjects such as politics, investigative history, and law, which he learned fromHofrat (“Court Councillor”)Franz von Zeiller [de]. He and his brothers travelled extensively and inspected institutions, recording their experiences in diaries.[14]
In 1792, sixteen-year-old Joseph lost both of his parents in three months, and his eldest brother,Francis, becameemperor-king. Joseph accompanied him to his coronations inFrankfurt,Prague, andBuda, where he spent 27 days. This was his first visit to Pest-Buda,[2][15] and he went to see thelibrary [hu],botanical garden, and natural history collection of theRoyal University of Pest (today Eötvös Loránd University). He met leaders of the country, spending the most time with thePrince-PrimateJózsef Battyhány [hu],Prince-Archbishop of Esztergom, but also seeingJudge RoyalKároly Zichy andChancellorKároly Pálffy [hu]. He preferredPest to Buda.[15]
In 1794, Joseph went on a trip to theAustrian Netherlands, which theHabsburg monarchy had temporarily regained during theFrench Revolutionary Wars. After his brother'sswearing-in inBrussels, he studied the culture and economy of the country. From 14 April to 31 May, he was on the battlefield and witnessed one minor win and multiple losses. He analysed the tactics of the Imperial Army and theFrench Revolutionary Army, and drewcaricatures of imperial military leaders.[16]
When Joseph's father became king of Hungary in 1790, he re-established the office ofpalatine (Hungarian:nádor), which had been vacant since 1765. TheDiet of Hungary elected one of his younger sons,Alexander Leopold to the position.[17] In 1795, he uncovered and repressed aconspiracy of theHungarian Jacobin movement [hu] led byIgnác Martinovics. Soon after, he joined his family inLaxenburg castles, where, being an enthusiasticpyrotechnician, he prepared fireworks to surprise his sisterAmalia on hername day.[17][18]
On 10 July, the day of the planned festivities, between 12 and 1 p.m., something caught fire, causing all of the prepared rockets and the remaining gunpowder to explode. His brotherCharles rushed to the rescue with servants, but they struggled to break down the door.[17] He was found unconscious on the floor, his neck, back, and arms covered in burns. He regained consciousness and lived another forty hours in agony, before passing away on 12 July.[17][18]
The death of Alexander Leopold was greatly mourned by progressiveHungarian nobles, who had hoped for his help in establishing aconstitutional monarchy.Conspiracy theories emerged that he had been murdered by the Viennese court for planning to seize the crown with the help of Judge RoyalZichy.[19] CountJózsef Teleki [hu],főispán ofBékés andUgocsa Counties advised the Emperor-King to allow for the election of another member of the imperial family to calm tensions.Moson County proposedAlbert, Duke of Teschen (the Emperor-King's uncle-in-law) who had served asgovernor of Hungary from 1765 to 1781. Others would have preferred Archduke Charles, who had become popular with his military successes in the French Revolutionary Wars, and Count Teleki himself suggested Joseph. Although on 18 July Emperor-King Francis asked for more time to prepare an election, on the 20th[20] he appointed Joseph governor of Hungary.[21][22]
The appointment of a governor instead of the election of a palatine was an important win for thereactionary party of the Hungarian nobility led by Baron József Izdenczy, seen by progressives as a step back on the road of constitutional development.[23] Izdenczy's circles had painted a grim picture of Hungary to the King, convincing him that a rebellion was imminent. Nevertheless, to avoid upsetting progressive circles, the Baron advised the Emperor-King to give more power to Joseph than that of the previous governor, so that his position would be more similar to that of a palatine.[24] Thus, Joseph was not welcomed with unequivocal enthusiasm, especially because Hungarian high office holders were replaced at the same time.[25]
The new governor received an education in Hungarian law from theJosephinistcanon lawyer György Zsigmond Lakics,[11][20] recommended by Izdenczy.[26] Emperor-King Francis advised him to “keep [his] house in order, manage it well, [...] treat [his] entourage humanely and [not to] tolerate intrigue”. He suggested that Joseph travel around Hungary, and reminded him that his first duty would be justice to his people.[11]
Archduke Joseph entered Buda on 19 September 1795, heading aprocession undertriumphal arches, amongst a cheering crowd.[11][20] On the 21st, he wasinaugurated asfőispán ofPest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun County, followed by mass in theMatthias Church, dinner for six hundred by Prince-Primate Battyhány, and aball.[11] On the next day, he took his seat as president of the governing council.[11] He continued studying Hungarian history and law with Lakics,[11][20] and started learning the language fromFerenc Verseghy [hu], who had participated in the Hungarian Jacobin movement.[2]
You are to stand at the helm of a noble and powerful nation, of a great and rich country, whose powers must still be increased for the sake of the dynasty. Let it be your main goal to win the respect, confidence, and love of this nation, and work for it with all your might! The Hungarian is very fiery and very sensitive in his privileges, besides being distrustful, but by a strict observance of our laws one can easily get along with him.
— Emperor-King Francis, letter to Archduke Joseph on his governorship in Hungary
Joseph first needed to settle the case of eight university and secondary school teachers, one of whom allegedly translatedLa Marseillaise to Hungarian, while others organised gatherings with convicted freemasons and Martinovics co-conspirators,[27] or taughtpantheism.[28] The Emperor-King ordered an investigation, which was not in the interest of János Németh, head of the Royal Directorate and close ally of Izdenczy, as he lacked proof. He persuaded Joseph to propose to the Emperor-King the dismissal of five of the accused teachers, which Francis accepted.[29] In this matter which he had to solve only three weeks after arriving in Buda, he relied entirely on a referral he had received from Németh.[29]
Since 1790, there had been plans to move the Royal University of Pest to a smaller city, namelyNagyszombat (today Trnava,Slovakia),Esztergom,Vác, orEger.[29] In 1794, these cities urged their respective counties to reach an agreement, while Pest tried to keep the institution. Most of the clerical elite,conservative aristocrats, and the gentry's deputies wanted to see it removed.[30] On 23 October 1795, the referral reached the governing council. Joseph himself followed public opinion.[31]
The first problem Joseph resolved on his own was an outbreak ofplague inSyrmia County, worsened by hurried and inconsistent countermeasures. Joseph ordered alockdown of the infected area guarded by armed civilians from nearby uninfected villages under military supervision. This led to a revolt in two villages, who let out theirquarantined neighbours and attempted to break through the cordon.[31] The Governor appealed for an arms shipment to the martial council in Vienna, which generally opposed arming civilians in fear of a rebellion. Joseph negotiated and obtained the necessary weapons, preventing the disease from spreading.[32]
The Emperor-King mainly tasked Joseph with policing dissenters and uncovering suspected conspiracies.[31] In smaller debates onreligious tolerance (which he supported),[33] wine export (also supported),[34] or giving refuge to French priests (which he refused to do as he feared that they would be too much of a burden and keep local priests from advancing in their careers),[35] he proved to be a level-headed and caring leader.[34]
Contrary to the hopes of the reactionary party, most members of the aristocracy and thegentry wanted to see Archduke Joseph as elected palatine.[36] However, the electing body was theDiet of Hungary, which Emperor-King Francis had no intention gathering.[36] As he needed the assistance of Hungarians in the French Revolutionary Wars[37] he eventually called a diet with the sole purpose of electing a palatine.[38] After much negotiation, during which Joseph tried to convince his brother that a diet and a palatine were necessary to attain the required aid, while Izdenczy argued against him,[39] Francis conceded.[36] On 8 November 1796, the diet met inPozsony (today Bratislava, Slovakia);[11] Archduke Joseph was elected palatine on 12 November[40][41] and inaugurated on the 14th.[11][42]
After his election, Joseph assumed a more active role. While previously he had mostly relied on the opinions and decisions of Izdenczy'sultra-conservative party,[29] he now realised that their investigation against progressive teachers had lacked proof and was improperly conducted. He criticised this to the Viennese court, and reprimanded Németh.[43]
In early February 1796, Joseph alerted Emperor-King Francis to the devastation that the loss of the Polish market for Hungarian wine caused afterPoland's partitionig. His proposal to help out the wine trade was his first individual idea,[44] but Vienna wanted to maintain the economic dominance of theHabsburg hereditary lands.[45] In early September, while the sovereign continued to demand soldiers andammunition from Hungary, the Palatine relayed the nobility's wish for another diet, which was fervently opposed.[46] This might have convinced Joseph that Vienna was partial against Hungary.[47]
During the first years of his palatinate, the Archduke's time was taken up by war preparations. In early 1797, after military failures, Emperor-King Francis sent his family to Buda for their safety.[48] Around this time, a shift can be observed in the tone of the letters exchanged by the brothers: Joseph stopped merely executing Francis' will and became the more pro-active party.[48] He remained a lifelong conservative, worrying that Enlightenment ideas could “confuse” the uneducated. He warned the Emperor-King to keep an eye on returningprisoners of war who might have picked up revolutionary ideas in France.[49] In early 1798, he suggested a police force against the “strong advance of the revolutionary spirit”[50] and asecret police for bigger cities.[51] These ideas had already been brought up during the reign of Joseph II, but were then too fiercely opposed by the nobility.[50] While a secret police was established to monitor the mood in ten cities, there is no proof of the Palatine ever collaborating with them.[51]
A major turning point in Archduke Joseph's attitude towards his office were his travels to theRussian Empire. In 1798 and 1799, he visitedSaint Petersburg twice to finalise marriage plans with EmperorPaul I's daughter. He suffered humiliations because of diplomatic mistakes by the Viennese court, which led to him to view his brother's administration with a critical eye. Prior to 1798, he served to execute imperial will in Hungary, and during his short first marriage, he worked little. After the loss of his wife, when his focus returned to public matters, he approached them with an opinion of his own.[52]
On 9 June 1801, he wrote a referral to his brother asking him to release the remainingpolitical prisoners of the Martinovics uprising, including author and language reformerFerenc Kazinczy. He urged the Emperor-King to gather a diet, reform public education, establish a second university, and boost trade. He was concerned with what a “relatively sparse population” the “vast, abundant area” of Hungary supported (different estimations give between 8.1 and 9 million inhabitants[53][54][55][56] for an area of 282,870 km2/109,220 sq mi[57] in 1790) and at what a “backwards stage of culture, among what primitive economic conditions” people lived.[58]
On 17 June 1801, Joseph submitted a report to Emperor-King Francis, explaining his view and opinions on Hungary. He characterised public opinion and morale as high, except for a few “atheistic andfreethinking” young people.[59] He criticised members of the aristocracy for not striving for knowledge and “useful occupations”, as few of them ran for public office and most of those who did neglected their positions.[60] He proposed that only those should be madechamberlain orcourt councillor who had proved themselves in public service,[61] and emphasised the potential of thelower nobility, advising more appreciation towards them.[61] He was most dissatisfied with thebureaucracy, faulting them for a lack of “zeal” and “diligence” and for not keepingclassified information secret.[62] His proposed solutions based on maintaining the country's spirits, for example by permitting diets, instead of oppression.[62]
Archduke Charles, Joseph's brother and leader of the Imperial Army, demandedrecruits and money from Hungary.[63] This could only be granted by the diet, and the Viennese court was afraid that the nobility would bring up their many complaints if one was gathered.[64] Joseph worked to convince his brother otherwise, presenting his arguments in his report of June 1801. He suggested that the sovereign resolve some of the grievances the Hungarian nobility ahead of the diet, such as re-attachingDalmatia to Hungary, or allowing a free export ofgrain (which had been forbidden to keep the enemy French from acquiring it).[65] The pressing situation of the Imperial Army finally led to the Viennese court accepting a diet.[66]
Despite tragedies in his personal life (the death of his infant daughter and his wife in early 1801), as well as health concerns, the Palatine prepared thoroughly for the assembly, struggling with the Emperor-King and his ministers who were unwilling to compromise.[67] They denied any help to the Hungarian economy or re-attaching Dalmatia and argued that educational reforms,were to be decided by the monarch alone.[68] The Viennese legislature thought that Hungary did not contribute proportionally to the Habsburg monarchy, while many Hungarians criticised the government for suppressing industrial development.[69]
The Diet of 1802 was opened on the 13 May, with multiple members of the Habsburg dynasty present.[70] In his opening speech, Joseph aligned himself with Hungarians, promising to protect their rights if the Emperor-King tried to infringe upon them,[58] but emphasised the importance of “complete trust” in the sovereign.[70]
The Emperor is my brother; but if he should violate the least of your rights, I would forget the ties of blood to remind myself that I am your palatine.
— Archuke Joseph, opening speech of the 1802 diet
The main goal of the deputies was to pass legislation supportingagricultural and industrial development, stifled by thecustoms regulations of Maria Theresa [hu]. Cities, towns, andguilds compiled proof and wrote explanations of why the existing system was unjust and unsustainable, asking for an equal regulatory treatment of all parts of the Habsburg monarchy. Theyargued that the main goal of customs regulations was to prevent the founding offactories in Hungary and exclude Hungarian merchants frominternational trade.[71] Another economist supporting a major reform wasGergely Berzeviczy, whose thesis rebutted accusations by the Viennese government that it was the “laziness” and “primitiveness” of Hungarians that made the country unproductive.[72] Austrians were dismissive,[73] and Emperor-King Francis committed to the old regulations.[74]
Another problem raised at the diet was that ofbanknotes, which had been used since 1762.[74] The acceptance of banknotes as payment was made compulsory in 1800. As a result of government debt,inflation was concerning.[75] Given how serious the monarchy's troubles were and the parties' distrust of each other, the diet promised to be difficult.[76] The Palatine worked hard, studied previous negotiations between the two parties. When he learned that thefőispáns of each county were commanded to submit the instructions given to their respective envoys to theAustrian chancellery, he was concerned that this would cause distrust among Hungarians. He gave frequent descriptions ofpublic sentiment to the Emperor-King, telling him that while most people deemed the royal demands “just and necessary”, opinions differed on methods of execution.[77] To elevate spirits, some members of the imperial family moved to Pozsony, and various feasts and religious ceremonies were held.[70]
Initial negotiations were be promising,[70] but the royal propositions of 13 May did not mention any of the subjects concerning the Hungarians, simply asking for new recruits and highertaxes.[78] On the 21st, the nobles asked for time to discuss the demands and for economic reforms to ease the introduction of higher taxes.[79] Emperor-King Francis received their referral well,[80] althoughanti-constitutional circles in Vienna objected to the assembly debating the Emperor-King's proposals. While negotiations remained peaceful, both parties were unwilling to compromise.[81] Joseph played the role of mediator and calmed the Hungarians,[82] who worried that the Viennese court wanted to introduce continuous recruitment to render diets unnecessary.[83]
Tensions were increased by a royal letter on 12 July, which emphasisedroyal prerogatives, leading the envoys to believe that the King did not respect their rights. By 18 July, participants had become “confused” and “withdrawn”.[83] To avoid escalation, Joseph talked to Francis personally in early August, describing how determined the envoys were and that they represented general opinion. He warned the Emperor-King that if he insisted on the content of the letter of 12 July, the situation would deteriorate beyond help,[84] and he expressed support for some economic proposals of the assembly.[85] As a result, a new royal letter on 14 August focused more on achieving consensus and stated that any decisions would only be in effect until the next diet.[86] The sovereign entrusted the Palatine with settling matters “favourably for the state”, giving guidelines.[87]
By this time, however, participating nobles had become distrustful of the King and insisted on the entirey of their demands, despite Joseph trying to convince them to compromise.[88] He told the envoys that if they did not accept his mediation, he would advise the Emperor-King to refuse all requests. The diet voted for twelve thousand new recruits and promised to find a solution for continuous recruitment at the next diet.[89] (The Diet of 1804 did not deliver on these promises.)[58]
Joseph had grown tired of the assembly by mid-August, and he asked the Emperor-King to settle some minor issues and close the diet.[90] Economic reforms were never seriously considered, especially because the issue was brought up on 14 July, the same day the ill-received royal letter of the 12nd was presented to the envoys.[91] The Emperor-King's hesitance to re-attachModruš-Rijeka County meant that the diet ended in distrust and pessimism in October.[92] To the Palatine, Francis wrote that Hungarian nobles “only want gains for themselves, without looking to the good of the whole” empire, and that he would need “great resignation” to forget their “behaviour against [him]”.[93]
The reckless eagerness to achieve Your Majesty's intentions right now, which has not given me time to think about its possibility and feasibility, insufficient deliberation, [and] [...] the thought that I might, with my authority and the trust of the estates placed in me, see through a matter which had repeatedly failed before—which flattered my self-esteem—tempted me to make a proposal to Your Majesty without having considered the consequences. This, however, would have been far from drawing the present consequences had not the false arguments and harsh expressions [...] in said resolution excited tempers. [...] [T]he stubborn discussions with the estates prior to the assembly had upset me [...] and at the conference [...] I—to my shame—therefore paid attention to the words rather than to the substance and thus completely spoiled the matter. Your Majesty cannot believe [...] how I feel when I consider what more could have been accomplished by this parliament, and how little more will be possible to be accomplished by it.
— Archduke Joseph in a letter to his brother, Emperor-King Francis on 25 August 1802, quotes Domanovszky
Since Archduke Joseph had developed a close relationship with theHouse of Romanov and especially his former mother-in-law Empress DowagerMaria Feodorovna, his brother relied on his help in keeping the Russians allied during theNapoleonic Wars.[94] In December 1802, the Empress Dowager invited Joseph to Saint Petersburg. He arrived on 30 March,[95] and found the imperial court in three factions around the EmperorAlexander I, Empress ConsortElizabeth Alexeievna, and the Dowager Empress, respectivaly.[96] Joseph joined the Dowager's circles.[97]
He tried to seem neutral, eating lunch with the Emperor almost every day and spending the afternoons with him.[98] Alexander disclosed his opinions and worries, which Joseph reported to Vienna. Still, his preference for the Dowager's faction displeased the Russian court, particularly when he declined a tour of the country with the Emperor. The imperial couple were offended by the fact that he ignored the Empress Consort's sister, Princess Amalia of Baden, and it was unclear why he had travelled to Russia if he was uninterested in marrying her.[99] Sensing these tensions, the Archduke'sHofmeister János Szapáry urged him to return to Buda and even asked Emperor-King Francis to order him back under some pretense. Joseph refused to consider leaving.[100] Eventually, after the imperial family tried to pressure him into marrying Princess Amalia, he decided to leave in June,[101] and spent his last few weeks inPavlovsk as the Empress Dowager's personal guest.[102] Once he had returned to Vienna, he honestly described foreign opinion on the Habsburg monarchy to Emperor-King Francis and urged him to be more pro-active.[58]
During the decades of his palatinate, Archduke Joseph continued to mediate between his dynasty and Hungarians. He tried to moderate and unify the latter, especially at the Diet of 1832–1836. There, he persuaded theHouse of Magnates not toveto proposals by theHouse of Representatives. In 1840, he secured amnesty for the Hungarian progressivesLászló Lovassy,Lajos Kossuth, andMiklós Wesselényi. When, in 1843, the Viennese government tried to shut down theVédegylet [hu], an association helping Hungarian industries by promoting and purchasing their products, the Palatine protected it.[2]
In 1802, Joseph supported the establishment of a national library, which would later develop into theNational Széchényi Library and theHungarian National Museum, contributing valuablecodices and books to it. In 1826, he founded the National Royal Joseph Institute and School of the Blind (today the National Institute for the Blind). In 1835, he participated in founding ofThe Royal Hungarian Ludovica Defense Academy (todayZrínyi Miklós National Defence University [hu]) to provide training forcadets. At the Diet of 1825, which was gathered after a break of thirteen years on Joseph's insistence, theHungarian Academy of Sciences was established, to which he contributed ten thousandforints. In 1846, he founded the Royal Joseph Polytechnic (today'sBudapest University of Technology and Economics).[2]
For the development of Hungarian transportation, he founded theKőbányahorsecar line in 1827–28, as well as the first train line of the country (between Pest andVác) in collaboration with CountIstván Széchenyi. He helped establish theHungarian Commerce Bank of Pest [hu], and ran ademonstration farm on hisAlcsút estate, introducing new methods and species to Hungary.[2]
The earliest record of Archduke Joseph's ambition to transformPest from a neglected provincial town into a modern European city dates to 16 November 1804, when he informed city leadership that the sovereign himself desired the regulation and improvement of Pest (although there is no documented evidence of the Francis' personal involvement). Joseph appointed Hungarian-German architectJózsef Hild to oversee the city's development. A key milestone came in October 1808, with the establishment of the Pesti Szépítő Bizottság (Beautification Committee of Pest), chaired by the Palatine himself.[58] Under his guidance, major urban projects were launched, including the planning and construction ofLipótváros and the creation of theCity Park, which was planted with trees from his privateAlcsút estate. In 1815, he supported to the construction ofBuda Observatory [hu] onGellért Hill, and later purchasedMargaret Island for conversion into a public park. When the1838 flood [hu] devastated Pest-Buda, Joseph personally directed the rescue mission and helped relieve those affected.[2]
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In 1798, Joseph was instructed by Emperor-King Francis to marry Grand DuchessAlexandra Pavlovna, eldest daughter of EmperorPaul I of Russia, to secure his support in the French Revolutionary Wars.[103] In January 1799, Joseph travelled to Saint Petersburg[104] under thepseudonym Count Burgau.[105] Arriving on 20 February (O.S.), he was welcomed warmly.[104] The Archduke was enchanted by the “charm” and “reserved modesty” of Alexandra Pavlovna, a tall, blonde girl aged fifteen,[106] whom he described as “well-built and very beautiful”, as well as “clever” and “talented”.[105] In a letter to his brother Francis, he declared their meeting the “happiest moment of [his] life” and Alexandra a “noble princess with whom [he] would be happy”.[41]
I cannot thank Your Majesty's graciousness enough that it has appointed her for me as partner in life, and I am convinced that with this marriage my domestic bliss is assured for the entirety of my life.
— Archduke Joseph to Emperor-King Francis about his bride, quotes Hankó and Kiszely in 'A nádori kripta'
Alexandra Pavlovna's education had been supervised by her grandmotherCatherine the Great,[107] emphasising French, German, music, and drawing. She was a diligent student and talented in the arts. She had been intended to marry KingGustav IV Adolf of Sweden until Sweden refused to allow her to keep herOrthodox religion.[108]
At the betrothal ceremony on 22 February (O.S.), the bride woredíszmagyar [hu]; engagement rings were exchanged by the Emperor. Joseph left on 20 March[105] to assume a role of military leadership in Austria. A faction headed by BaronJohann Amadeus von Thugut was conspiring to replace Archduke Charles with Joseph (which Joseph himself did not want).[109] However, Emperor-King Francis was too indecisive to enter into an open conflict with the popular Charles, and never appointed Joseph.[110] Emperor Paul, who would have liked his son-in-law to lead the Imperial Army, grew distrustful and questioned why Joseph had left Russia so soon.[111]
Joseph returned to Buda on 13 May to prepare for his wife's arrival, re-decoratingBuda Castle and appointing female staff.[105] He urged his brother to designate a day for the wedding, but Francis did not answer until 19 August.[112] Emperor Paul became disillusioned, so Joseph was sent back to Russia to sway him, and the wedding date was announced as 30 October.[112]
Arriving on 15 October in theGatchina Palace, he was initially welcomed warmly, but after news of lost battles, the Emperor refused to talk to him.[113] The Viennese court complicated the situation by demanding that the Roman Catholic wedding precede theOrthodox one, and be celebrated by an archbishop who had not yet arrived in Russia. Paul was angered by the implication of postponing the ceremony. In the end, the archbishop arrived on time and the Orthodox ceremony was first.[114] On the 29th, Joseph visited the Emperor without announcement, asking for his blessing and committing himself to solving their diplomatic issues openly and honestly, making a great impression.[115]
On 30 October, after Emperor Paul had awarded Joseph theOrder of St. Andrew, he married Alexandra Pavlovna in the imperial chapel of Gatchina Palace.[116][117] The following days were overshadowed by news of lost battles and subsequent tension between Austria and Russia,[118] as well as disagreements over thedowry and thedower.[105] The Emperor briefly refused to see his son-in-law, but reconciled with him before the couple's departure on 2 December, which was very emotional.[119] After a visit to Vienna, they arrived in Buda on 11 February.[120] The Austro-Russian alliance soon fell apart.[121]
The union proved happy.[120] Many festivities were organised for and by Alexandra, who usually wore Hungarian-style dress. The couple rode and walked around Buda, once finding the village ofÜröm, which Alexandra liked so much that Joseph purchased it for their summer residence.[105][117] Alexandra enjoyedHungarian folk music and talked to delegations oftóts (Roman CatholicSouth Slavs in Hungary) in a mix ofRussian andSlovak.[105] For Joseph's birthday in 1800, she commissionedHaydn to conduct his oratorioThe Creation, and she invitedBeethoven to perform in Budapest.[123]
Alexandra was well-liked by Hungarians for her consideration. She became colloquially known as queen, to the dismay of the Viennese court and especially her sister-in-law EmpressMaria Theresa (who was, in fact, queen consort of Hungary). Whenever the palatinal couple visited Vienna, Alexandra was humiliated in small ways, and they were accommodated in a remote garden house instead of the imperial palace.[105]
Alexandra's pregnancy was relatively easy,[105] but she developed afever two days before giving birth.[124] Early on 8 March 1801, a daughter was born after prolonged labour. Reportedly “very weak”, she died within the day,[124] possibly the hour.[105][125] According to Joseph's biographer Domanovszky, the child was called Alexandra,[124] but Hankó and Kiszely, who exhumed the body, state that she was registered as Paulina in her death certificate, and her casket displayed the same name. She has no entry in the baptism registry, suggesting that she was christened after death. She was buried in the Capuchin church in the presence of Hungarian dignitaries.[105] In 1838, she was transferred to the Palatinal Crypt. An investigation in 1978 determined that she had been a normally developed newborn, not at all “very weak”, and concluded that she probably died ofhypoxia during the long delivery.[105]
The death of the baby devastated both parents, but at first Alexandra appeared to recover. Despite being treated by four doctors, her condition later deteriorated, and she developedmastitis. From 12 March, she was treated againsttyphoid fever;[105] early on the 15th, she becamedelirious, dying on 16 March.[124]
Theembalmed bodylay in state on acatafalque in Alexandra's personal chapel for three days before being placed in a separate building for six weeks to fulfill Orthodox customs. Alexandra was buried on 12 May at noon in the Capuchin Church.[105]
On 17 March, Joseph went to Vienna, then travelled around Italy. When he returned in the spring of 1802, he started the construction of theSaint Alexandra Chapel [hu] in Üröm following his wife's wishes, and she was reburied there in 1803,[105] and, after multiple exhumations and disturbances, is there as of 2024.[126] After agrave robbery in the late 1980s, an investigation was carried out, determining that Alexandra Pavlovna suffered and probably died oftuberculosis. The examinations ruled out poisoning, rumours of which had surfaced following her death.[105]
In early 1803, Archduke Joseph visited his late wife's family on his mother-in-law's invitation.[95] EmpressElizabeth Alexeievna wanted him to wed her older sister, PrincessAmalia of Baden,[95] a plan supported by the new emperor,Alexander I.[98] Amalia was known for her kindness and goodness but not her beauty, and Joseph was not attracted to her, deciding early on that he would not propose. The Princess disliked Joseph's personality.[95] However, Joseph did not want to offend his mother-in-law, and waited for weeks before explicitly rejecting the idea.[127]
During his stay, he grew attached to his fifteen-year-old sister-in-law, Grand DuchessCatherine Pavlovna, who had been promised to Electoral PrinceLudwig of Bavaria.[97] However, the Orthodox church was strict in prohibiting marriage between siblings-in-law, so he never formally proposed.[98]
Some time later, the Palatine considered marryingPrincess Charlotte of Saxe-Hildburghausen after her engagement toGrand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia had been broken off; it is unknown why this plan never materialised. In November 1803, there were signs that the Emperor might agree to the marriage between his sister Catherine and the Palatine, who asked Empress Dowager Maria and received a final negative answer. In 1804, he attempted to find a bride fromBavaria, but decided against it because of French disapproval.[128]
The Archduke saw Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna two more times: first, in 1809, when she travelled through Hungary on her way to marryDuke George of Oldenburg, the Palatine escorted her through the country. In 1815, by when Catherine Pavlovna herself had also been widowed, they met at theCongress of Vienna. Contemporary rumour suspected that the two would revisit their marriage plans. Archduke Joseph married someone else that year, and Catherine married KingWilliam I of Württemberg and died in 1819.[129]
After fourteen years of widowhood, with the Napoleonic Wars over, Joseph decided to remarry in 1815.[58] On 30 August 1815, inSchaumburg Castle, he marriedPrincess Hermine of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym, the seventeen-year-old eldest daughter of the lateVictor II, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym and PrincessAmelia of Nassau-Weilburg.[58] The bride, twenty-two years younger than the groom, practicedCalvinism. She became an active and well-likednádorné (“wife of the palatine/lady palatine”), especially popular amongProtestants.[58] In 1817, she founded the first charitable women's association in Hungary.[130] On 14 September 1817, she prematurely gave birth to twins,Hermine andStephen. The labour was complicated, and Hermine died ofpostpartum infections within twenty-four hours.[58]
Joseph was not present for the birth, which had been expected for October, as was at the border to receive his mother-in-law. After lying in state for two days, Hermine was buried in thecrypt of theCalvinist church [hu] onSzéna tér (today Kálvin tér) which she had helped build. The 1838 flood damaged the crypt and carried away the urns containing her heart and intestines but left the casket intact. Afterwards, Joseph obtained an ecclesiastical license to transfer Hermine's remains to the Palatinal Crypt despite her not being a Catholic. She was placed in a separate chamber within the crypt[58] and still rests there as of 2023,[131] now in a more central place.[58]
After two short, tragic marriages and in a difficult economic and political climate, Archduke Joseph was looking for a companion in his everyday problems.[58] He chose twenty-two-year-oldDuchess Maria Dorothea of Württemberg, daughter ofDuke Louis of Württemberg andPrincess Henriette of Nassau-Weilburg.[58] TheKingdom of Württemberg had been an ally of theAustrian Empire at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, so Emperor-King Francis supported the match. The couple with an age difference of twenty-one years married in the castle ofKirchheim unter Teck on 24 August 1819.[58]
Maria Dorothea spent her life asnádorné with charitable work, especially supporting theLutheran church in Hungary to which she belonged, besides teachers and schools. She founded and supported many charitable societies and institutions[58][132] and helped Joseph in his job as palatine. Their main shared cause was making Hungarian the country's official language (instead of Latin). OnNew Year's Day 1826, she gave a speech in Hungarian, the first time a Habsburg archduchess addressed the country in its own language. Maria Dorothea actively participated in the social life of Pest, frequenting the houses of theKárolyis and theSzéchenyis, with whom she conversed in Hungarian. She often wore a Hungarian-style dress.[58]
The couple's first child, Elizabeth Caroline Henrika was born on 30 July 1820, and died twenty-three days later on 23 August. She was the first person to be buried in the Palatinal Crypt, withoutembalming or much ceremony. According to her death certificate, she died of “internalhydrocephalus” (inneren Wasserkopfe), and a later investigation found signs supporting this, besides determining that she had been born prematurely.[58] Alexander Leopold Ferdinand was born on 6 June 1825. He was described as kind, clever, and healthy. In November 1837, aged twelve, he started to suffer fromdiarrhea and developed symptoms ofscarlet fever. It is unclear what caused his death; it could have been complications of scarlet fever or, more likely, a mysterious infectious disease appearing at times during the century which consisted of recurrent fever,jaundice, and strong sweating.Hepatitis,paratyphoid fever, andtyphoid fever have also been suggested. He was buried silently in the Palatinal Crypt.[58]
The three youngest children,Elisabeth,Joseph Karl, andMarie Henriette survived to adulthood.[58] Maria Dorothea also raised her two step-children, and Joseph especially adored Hermine, a favourite of Hungarian high society. She died unexpectedly in 1842, aged twenty-five, devastating her father, and was widely mourned.[58] After Joseph's death in 1847, Maria Dorothea lived in Alcsút Palace and did not play a significant role in culture or politics. She died after an illness on 30 March 1855, at the age of fifty-eight, and was buried in the Palatinal Crypt on 4 April.[58]
In September 1845, the Archduke celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of his appointment to Hungary, and the next year marked the same anniversary for his palatinate. He was in ill health and became bedridden in early October 1846. He was well for a short time, but he wanted to secure the governorship for his elder son Stephen. On 11 January 1847, he tookextreme unction and received Stephen, who brought news of his sister Elisabeth's engagement, which delighted Joseph. Then, they conversed about the state of their family and Hungary, with the Palatine giving advice to his son. In the end, he exclaimed that he wanted to achieve a few more things in Hungary, commanding Stephen do to “what [his] hands can no longer do”.[58]
On 12 January, he asked to be taken to the window to look at Pest, by now a capital with a hundred thousand inhabitants. His doctors reported on his health three times a day to the public, writing of an “incessant decline of vitality and the accumulation of calamitous symptoms”, which did not “allow any comforting report to be made”. Kept awake by constanthiccups, he slept little and his speech was difficult to understand. On 13 January at dawn, he blessed his children before dying at nine in the morning, aged seventy.[58]
Following anautopsy, the late Archduke's body was embalmed, and helay in state until his burial on 18 January. He was interred in the Palatinal Crypt wearingdíszmagyar, and the cause of his death was given asintestinal paralysis. After grave robbers had disturbed the body, a medical investigation determined that he indeed died ofcirculatory shock resulting from paralysis, but the specific diagnosis remains unknown. One disorder which could lead to his symptoms isprostate enlargement.[58]
Archduke Joseph's son Stephen was elected the next (and last)nádor, while Joseph was honoured as one who had been “born a Habsburg but died a Hungarian”. Many eulogised him, among them his nephew Emperor-KingFerdinand I/V, who called him a “most valued advisor who always guarded the constitution of Hungary with vigilant care”, andLajos Kossuth, who depicted him as a patriarch respected by all factions. The first law of 1847–48 enshrined his memory as one who had “deserved the gratitude of the nation entirely” with his “untiring zeal” in guiding the affairs of Hungary for half a century under difficult circumstances. On 25 April 1869, his statue byJohann Halbig was unveiled in the presence of the then-ruling imperial and royal couple,Franz Joseph I andElisabeth, a demonstration of their trust and love of Hungary following theAustro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.[58]
Archduke Joseph had eight children from three marriages, five daughters and three sons. Two daughtersdied in infancy and a further one in childhood. His three surviving children from his last marriage married and had issue; Archduke Joseph Karl continuing the Hungarian or Palatinal branch of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, which had been founded by his father. His older sonStephen became the last palatine of Hungary, his term cut short after less than a year by theHungarian Revolution of 1848. One of his daughters,Marie Henriette, becamequeen consort of the Belgians and the mother of Crown PrincessStéphanie of Austria.
His children were:
Empire of Brazil:Grand Cross of the Southern Cross[133]
Habsburg Monarchy:
Kingdom of Prussia
Russian Empire| Ancestors of Archduke Joseph of Austria (Palatine of Hungary)[137] |
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