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Thearchaeology of the Western Hemisphere, includingNorth America (Mesoamerica),Central America,South America and theCaribbean, includes the study of pre-historic/pre-Columbian and historicindigenous American peoples, as well ashistorical archaeology of more recent eras, including the trans-Atlantic slave trade and European colonization.
Thepre-Columbian era is the term generally used to encompass all time period subdivisions in thehistory of the Americas spanning the time from the originalsettlement of the Americas in theUpper Paleolithic until theEuropean colonization of the Americas during theearly modern period. While technically referring to the era before the voyages ofChristopher Columbus from AD 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history ofAmerican indigenous cultures until the 18th or 19th century. In more recent decades, archaeological scholarship has extended to include enslaved Africans and European and Asian migrant populations.
The pre-Columbian archaeological record in the Americas has conventionally been divided into five phases based on an enduring system established byGordon Willey andPhilip Phillips's 1958 bookMethod and Theory in American Archaeology.[1] Their chronology differs fromold world prehistory from Europe and Asia which uses thethree-age system, with theStone Age divided intoPaleolithic,Mesolithic,Neolithic, andChalcolithic, followed by theBronze Age andIron Age, remain in general use.
Numerous regional and sub-regional divisions have since been defined to distinguish various cultures through time and space, as later archaeologists recognized that these generalised stages did not adequately correspond to the cultural variation that existed in different locations in the Americas.[1]
Today, for Meso- and Andean South America, the later periods are more often classified using the "Horizon" terminology, with "Early Horizon" typically broadly equating to the Late Formative stage. "Horizons" are periods of cultural stability and political unity, with "Intermediate periods" covering the politically fragmented transition between them. In theAndes, there are three Horizon periods, with two Intermediate periods between them. The Horizons, and their dominant cultures are: Early Horizon,Chavin; Middle Horizon,Tiwanaku andWari culture; Late Horizon,Inca.[2]
Since 1990, in the United States,physical anthropology and archaeological investigations based on the study of human remains are influenced by theNative American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, (NAGPRA), which provides for the bodies of Native Americans and associatedgrave goods to be turned over to the recognized tribal body most legally affiliated with the remains; the law applies only to culturally identifiable remains and artefacts found on federally owned public land. In some cases, notably, that ofKennewick Man, these laws have been subject to close judicial scrutiny and great intellectual conflict.[3]
Mesoamerica is a region andcultural area in the Americas, extending approximately from centralMexico toHonduras andNicaragua, within which a number ofpre-Columbiansocieties flourished before theSpanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries.[4][5] Prehistoric groups in this area are characterized byagricultural villages and large ceremonial and politico-religious capitals[6] This culture area included some of the most complex and advancedcultures of the Americas, including theOlmec,Teotihuacan, theMaya, and theAztec, the most powerful tribe of Mesoamerica in their time.
Important South American societies includethe Moche,the Inca,the Wari.
Important South American archaeological sites include:Chavín de Huántar,Pikillaqta,Machu Picchu,Tiwanaku,Monte Verde, and theUpano Valley sites.
Central America is a region and cultural area in the Americas located south of Mesoamerica extending from Nicaragua to the southern border of Panama. Important sites include theStone Spheres of Costa Rica.
Molecular genetics study suggests thatsurvivingAmerindian populations derived from a theoretical singlefounding population, possibly from only 50 to 70 genetic contributors.[7] Preliminary research, restricted to only 9 genomic regions (orloci) have shown a genetic link between original Americas and Asia populations. The study does not address the question of separate migrations for these groups, and excludes other DNA data-sets.[8]
TheAmerican Journal of Human Genetics released an article in 2007 stating, "Here we show, by using 86 completemitochondrialgenomes, that all Indigenous Americanhaplogroups, includingHaplogroup X (mtDNA), were part of a single founding population."[9] Amerindian groups in the Bering Strait region exhibit perhaps the strongest DNA or mitochondrial DNA relations toSiberian peoples. The genetic diversity of Amerindian indigenous groups increase with distance from the assumed entry point into the Americas.[10][11] Certain genetic diversity patterns from West to East suggest at least some coastal migration events.[12] Geneticists have variously estimated that peoples of Asia and the Americas were part of the same population from 42,000 to 21,000 years ago.[13]
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In February 2021, archaeologists from theUniversity of Buenos Aires–National Scientific and Technical Research Council announced the discovery of 12 graves dated to 6,000–1,300 years ago inArgentine Northwest. Researchers also revealed necklaces and pendants next to some of the bodies. According to archaeologist Leticia Cortés, there were many kinds ofburial methods, in individual or collective graves, and also in the posture of the bodies. Some were hyperflexed, like squatting, with the shoulders touching the knees.[14][15]
In 2018, 9000-year-old remains of a female hunter along with a toolkit ofprojectile points and animal processing implements were discovered at theAndean site ofWilamaya Patjxa,Puno District inPeru.[16][17]
In September 2021, archaeologists announced the remains of eight 800-year-old bodies nearby ancient town ofChilca. Bodies included adults and children who were covered in plant material before being buried. Some dishes and musical instruments were uncovered as well. Researchers think remains belong to the Chilca culture, which was apart from other pre-Hispanic cultures in the area.[18][19][20]
A mummy that is approximately 800 years old that is believed to be of pre-Inca cultures was found at the site ofCajamarquilla inPeru in November 2021. Researchers reported that the mummy was tied with strings, covering his face with his hands, so they assumed it was a southern Peruvian funeral custom.[21][22] In February 2022, archaeologists announced the discovery of six mummified children thought to have been sacrificed, probably to accompany a dead elite man to the afterlife. According to archaeologist Pieter Van Dalen, 1,000-1,200 years old mummies were probably relatives and placed one above the other in different parts of the tomb.[23][24]
In May 2022, archaeologists reported the discovery of 1,400-year-old remains of the Mayan site so-called Xiol on the outskirts ofMérida. They also uncovered a large central plaza and at least 12 buildings, workshops, burial places of adults and children, and analtar that served a ritual purpose.[25][26]
In June 2022, archaeologists from the Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) announced the discovery of a 1,300-year-old nine-inch-tall plaster head statue indicating a youngHun Hunahpu, the Maya's mythological maize god. The figure'ssemi-shaved haircut that resembles ripe corn gives reason to the possibility that it is a young maize god. Researchers assume that the Mayan inhabitants of Palenque possibly placed a large stone statuette over a pond to represent the entrance to the underworld. According to archaeologist Arnoldo González Cruz, the Mayan people symbolically shuttered the pool by breaking up some of the plaster and filling it with animal remains, including pottery fragments, carved bone remains, shells, obsidian arrowheads, beads, vegetables, and others.[27][28]
In May 2025, archaeologists uncovered a 5,000-year-old firealtar at the Era de Pando site inPeru's Supe Valley, part of the Caral Archaeological Zone, revealing new insights into the ceremonial practices of theCaral–Supe civilization. The altar, located within a pyramidal structure known as Building C1, measures approximately 7 meters in diameter and is preceded by a rectangular courtyard, suggesting its role in elite ritual activities involving offerings such asbeads,quartz fragments, fish, mollusks, and agricultural produce.[29][30]
In May 2025, a joint archaeological mission from Slovakia'sComenius University and the Guatemalan Ministry of Culture and Sports identified a large Mayan urban complex in the Petén jungle of northernGuatemala. Primarily dated to the Middle Preclassic period, the site consists of an "urban triangle" formed by three distinct centers: Los Abuelos, Petnal, and Cambrayal. Covering an area of approximately six square miles, the complex represents an early example of sophisticated architectural planning and socio-political organization in the Maya lowlands.[31][32]
In July 2025, a prehistoric urban center namedPeñico, dating back approximately 3,500 years, was identified in northern Peru by a team of Peruvian and international archaeologists. Located approximately 600 m above sea level, the site consists of 18 structures including a circular ceremonial plaza, temples, and residential buildings constructed between 1800 and 1500 BC. According to the archaeologists, the settlement demonstrates that early Andean societies engaged in complex societal organization, serving as a cultural bridge between coastal and Amazonian communities during the earlyFormative stage.[33][34][35]
In July, 2025, a pre-Incan tomb dating back around 1,000 years, attributed to theChancay culture was discovered in thePuente Piedra district ofLima,Peru. The burial contained a body wrapped in a torn funerary bundle, seated with legs drawn in, accompanied by four clay vessels and three pumpkin-shell artifacts. A similar grave, found nearby just two meters from a home’s entrance, contained the remains of a man wrapped in burial cloths alongside pottery, suggesting the presence of a broader burial complex.[36][37][38]
In July 2025, archaeologists from theNational Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) uncovered a pre-Hispanic mortuary cave within the Ocampo Natural Protected Area inCoahuila,Mexico. The discovery was made following reports of looting in the mountainous region, leading researchers to a vertical shaft approximately 50 centimeters wide. The subterranean chamber contained the skeletal remains of at least 17 individuals, including men, women, and 12 complete skulls, five of which belonged to children. The site is attributed to nomadic desert cultures of theAridoamerica region and is estimated to be at least 500 years old. In addition to human remains, the team recovered 15 textile fragments, as well as remnants of baskets and mats, suggesting the deceased were originally interred in mortuary bundles.[39][40]
In July 2025, archaeologists inLima, uncovered an ancientpre-Hispanic grave beneath a residential street in theCarabayllo district. The burial, which dates back approximately 800 to 1,000 years, is attributed to theIchma culture, a society that flourished on the central coast of Peru before the expansion of theInca Empire. The site contained the remains of an individual interred in a seated position, wrapped in traditional funerary fabrics known as fardos. Alongside the human remains, researchers recovered several artifacts, including ceramic vessels and wooden tools, which were placed as funerary offerings.[41][42]
In October 2025, archaeologists from theNational Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) announced the discovery of a pre-Hispanic urban center, or "lost city," on theCosta Chica of Guerrero, Mexico. Researchers have identified architectural features and ceramic fragments that suggest the site was occupied during the Epiclassic period, a time of a cultural transition following the decline ofTeotihuacán.Among the artifacts recovered were stone carvings with anthropomorphic features and evidence of a complex hydraulic system designed to manage the region’s water resources.[43][44]
In January 2026, the Metropolitan Institute of Heritage (IMP) of Quito announced the discovery of an extensive pre-Hispanic archaeological landscape in the Andean Chocó region ofEcuador. The findings were the result of aLiDAR survey conducted in December 2025.The survey identified more than 200 mounds and 100 terraces across an area of approximately 600 hectares. Prior to the use of LiDAR technology, traditional ground surveys had recorded 40 mounds and 10 terraces in the same vicinity.[45][46]
In January 2026, a well-preserved 1,400-year-old Zapotec tomb was discovered inOaxaca during an investigation by theNational Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH). There is a large frieze of an owl head decorating the entrance to the burial chamber, with the bird's beak curving over the painted stucco face of a Zapotec lord, symbolizing the connection between the deceased and the underworld. The interior contains rarepolychromemurals depicting a procession of figures carrying bags ofcopal, along with stone-carved guardians at the threshold.[47][48]
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