This article is about the Maipurean languages, or Arawakan proper. For the Araucanian language family spoken in the Patagonia, seeAraucanian languages.
Maipurean languages in South America (Caribbean and Central America not included): North-Maipurean (pale blue) and South-Maipurean (deeper blue). Spots represent location of extant languages, and shadowed areas show probable earlier locations.
Arawakan (Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper), also known asMaipurean (alsoMaipuran, Maipureano, Maipúre), is alanguage family that developed among ancientindigenous peoples in South America. Branches migrated toCentral America and theGreater Antilles andLesser Antilles in the Caribbean and the Atlantic, including what is now the Bahamas. Almost all present-day South American countries are known to have been home to speakers of Arawakan languages, the exceptions beingEcuador,Uruguay, andChile. Maipurean may be related to other language families in a hypotheticalMacro-Arawakan stock.
The nameMaipure was given to the family byFilippo S. Gilii in 1782, after theMaipure language ofVenezuela, which he used as a basis of his comparisons. It was renamed after the culturally more importantArawak language a century later. The termArawak took over, until its use was extended by North American scholars to the broaderMacro-Arawakan proposal. At that time, the nameMaipurean was resurrected for the core family. SeeArawakanvs Maipurean for details.
TheArawakan linguistic matrix hypothesis (ALMH)[1] suggests that the modern diversity of the Arawakan language family stems from the diversification of atrade language orlingua franca that was spoken throughout much of tropical lowland South America. Proponents of this hypothesis include Santos-Granero (2002)[2] and Eriksen (2014).[3] Eriksen (2014) proposes that the Arawakan family had only broken up after 600 CE, but Michael (2020) considers this to be unlikely, noting that Arawakan internal diversity is greater than that of the Romance languages.[1] On the other hand,Blench (2015) suggests a demographic expansion that had taken place over a few thousand years, similar to the dispersals of theAustronesian andAustroasiatic language families in Southeast Asia.[4]
Classification of Maipurean is difficult because of the large number of Arawakan languages that areextinct and poorly documented. However, apart from transparent relationships that might constitute single languages, several groups of Maipurean languages are generally accepted by scholars. Many classifications agree in dividing Maipurean into northern and southern branches, but perhaps not all languages fit into one or the other. The three classifications below are accepted by all:
An early contrast betweenTa-Arawak andNu-Arawak, depending on the prefix for "I", is spurious;nu- is the ancestral form for the entire family, andta- is an innovation of one branch of the family.
Below is a full list of Arawakan language varieties listed byLoukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.[6]
Arawakan language varieties listed byLoukotka (1968)
Island languages
Taino /Nitaino - once spoken in the Conquest days on theGreater Antilles Islands of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico and Jamaica. Dialects are:
Taino of Cuba - once spoken on the island of Cuba; in the nineteenth century only in the villages ofJiguaní,Bayano, andQuivicán; now the last descendants speak only Spanish.
Borinquen - once spoken on the island ofPuerto Rico. (unattested)
Wapishana /Matisana /Wapityan /Uapixana - spoken on theTacutu River,Mahú River, andSurumú River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil, and in the adjoining region in Guyana.
Caquetío - extinct language once spoken on the islands of Curaçao and Aruba near the Venezuelan coast, on theYaracuy River,Portuguesa River, andApure River, Venezuela. (only several words)
Ajagua - once spoken on theTocuyo River nearCarera, state of Lara, Venezuela. (only two words and patronyms.)
Quinó - once spoken in the village of Lagunillas, state of Mérida, Venezuela. (Nothing.)
Tororó /Auyama - once spoken in the village of San Cristóbal, state of Táchira. (Febres Cordero 1921, pp. 116–160 passim, only six words.)
Aviamo - once spoken on theUribante River, state of Táchira. (Unattested.)
Tecua - once spoken on theLengupa River and in the village of Teguas, department of Boyacá, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Yaguai - once spoken on theArichuna River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Yavitero /Pareni /Yavitano - spoken on theAtabapo River in the village of Yavita.
Guinau group
Guinau /Inao /Guniare /Temomeyéme /Quinhau - once spoken at the sources of theCaura River andMerevari River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela, now perhaps extinct.
Baré group
Baré /Ihini /Arihini - spoken on theCasiquiare River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela, and on the upper course of theNegro River, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
Uarequena - spoken on theGuainía River, Vaupés territory, Colombia.
Adzáneni /Adyána /Izaneni - spoken at the sources of theCaiarí River and on theApui River, frontier of Colombia and Brazil.
Carútana /Corecarú /Yauareté-tapuya - spoken on the frontier between Colombia and Brazil on theIçana River.
Katapolítani /Acayaca /Cadaupuritani - spoken on theIçana River in the village of Tunuhy, Brazil.
Siusí /Ualíperi-dákeni /Uereperidákeni - spoken on the lower course of theCaiarí River andIçana River and on the middle course of theAiari River, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
Moriwene /Sucuriyú-tapuya - spoken on theIçana River in the village ofSeringa Upita, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
Hohodene /Huhúteni - spoken on theCubate River, state of Amazonas.
Maulieni /Káua-tapuya - spoken on theAiari River, state of Amazonas.
Ipéca group
Ipéca /Kumada-mínanei /Baniva de rio Içana - spoken on theIçana River near the village of San Pedro, frontier region of Brazil and Colombia.
Payualiene /Payoariene /Pacu-tapuya - spoken in the same frontier region on theArara-paraná River.
Curipaco - spoken on theGuainía River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela.
Kárro - spoken in the territory of Amazonas on thePuitana River.
Kapité-Mínanei /Coatí-tapuya - spoken at the sources of theIçana River, Vaupés territory, Colombia.
Tariana group
Tariana /Yavi - spoken in the villages ofIpanoré andYauareté on theCaiarí River, Vaupés Territory, Colombia.
Iyäine /Kumandene /Yurupary-tapuya - spoken in the same region north of the Tariana tribe. Now only Tucano is spoken. (Unattested.)
Cauyari /Acaroa /Cabuyarí - once spoken on theCananari River and on the middle course of theApaporis River, territory of Amazonas, Colombia. Now perhaps extinct.
Arauaqui - extinct language once spoken between theNegro River andUatuma River. A few descendants now speak onlyLingua Geral or Portuguese. (Unattested.)
Uariteré - spoken on thePimenta Bueno River, territory of Rondônia. (Unattested.)
Chané group
Chané /Izoceño - formerly spoken on theItiyuro River, Salta province, Argentina, but now the tribe speaks only a language of the Tupi stock and the old language serves only for religious ceremonies. (only a few words.)
Caranariú - once spoken on theUrucauá River, now extinct. (Unattested.)
Tocoyene - once spoken in Amapá territory on theUanarí River. (Unattested.)
Macapá - once spoken on theCamopi River andYaroupi River, French Guiana, later on the upper course of thePará River, state of Pará, Brazil; now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Tucujú - once spoken on theJarí River, territory of Amapá, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Mapruan - once spoken on theOiac River, territory of Amapá. (Unattested.)
Aruan group
Aruan /Aroã - originally spoken on the north coast ofMarajó Island, Pará, later on theUaçá River, Amapá territory. A few descendants now speak only a French creole dialect.
Sacaca - extinct language once spoken in the eastern part ofMarajó Island.
Moríque group
Moríque /Mayoruna - spoken on the border of Brazil and Peru, on theJavarí River.
Chicluna - extinct language once spoken in the same region east of the Aguano tribe. (Unattested.)
Aguano /Awáno - extinct language of a tribe that lived on the lower course of theHuallaga River. The descendants, in the villages of San Lorenzo, San Xavier, and Santa Cruz, now speak only Quechua. (Unattested.)
Maparina - once spoken in the same region on the lower course of theUcayali River and at the old mission of Santiago. (Unattested.)
Cutinana - once spoken on theSamiria River, Loreto. (Unattested.)
Tibilo - once spoken in San Lorenzo village, Loreto region. (Unattested.)
Lorenzo group
Amoishe /Amlsha /Amuescha /Amage /Lorenzo - once spoken on thePaucartambo River andColorado River, department of Cuzco, Peru; now mainly Quechua is spoken.
Chunatahua - once spoken at the mouth of theChinchao River, department of Huánuco, Peru. (Unattested.)
Panatahua - spoken in the same region on the right bank of theHuallaga River betweenCoyumba andMonzón, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Chusco - once spoken in the same region as Panatahua nearHuánuco. (Unattested.)
The following (tentative) classification is from Kaufman (1994: 57-60). Details of established branches are given in the linked articles. In addition to the family tree detailed below, there are a few languages that are "Non-Maipurean Arawakan languages or too scantily known to classify" (Kaufman 1994: 58), which include these:
Including the unclassified languages mentioned above, the Maipurean family has about 64 languages. Out of them, 29 languages are nowextinct: Wainumá, Mariaté, Anauyá, Amarizana, Jumana, Pasé, Cawishana, Garú, Marawá, Guinao,Yavitero, Maipure, Manao, Kariaí, Waraikú, Yabaána, Wiriná, Aruán, Taíno, Kalhíphona, Marawán-Karipurá, Saraveca, Custenau, Inapari, Kanamaré, Shebaye, Lapachu, and Morique.
Apart from minor decisions on whether a variety is a language or a dialect, changing names, and not addressing several poorly attested languages, Aikhenvald departs from Kaufman in breaking up theSouthern Outlier andWestern branches of Southern Maipurean. She assigns Salumã and Lapachu ('Apolista') to what is left of Southern Outlier ('South Arawak'); breaks up theMaritime branch of Northern Maipurean, though keeping Aruán and Palikur together; and is agnostic about the sub-grouping of theNorth Amazonian branch of Northern Maipurean.
The following breakdown uses Aikhenvald's nomenclature followed by Kaufman's:
Maipurean
North Arawak = Northern Maipurean
Rio Branco = Kaufman's Wapishanan (2) [with Mapidian under the name "Mawayana" and Mawakwa as a possible dialect]
Aikhenvald classifies Kaufman's unclassified languages apart fromMorique. She does not classify 15 extinct languages which Kaufman had placed in various branches of Maipurean.
Aikhenvald (1999:69) classifiesMawayana withWapishana together under a Rio Branco branch, giving for Mawayana also the names "Mapidian" and "Mawakwa" (with some reservations for the latter).
Phonological innovations characterizing some of the branches:[8]
Maritime: loss of medial Proto-Arawakan *-n-.
Lokono-Wayuu: first person singular prefix *ta- replacing *nu-. Carvalho also reconstructs the suffix *-ja (possibly a deictic) and *kabɨnɨ 'three' as characteristic of this subgroup.
Campa:lexical innovations such as *iNʧato 'tree', *-taki 'bark', *-toNki 'bone', etc. There are also typological innovations due to contact with Andean languages such as Quechua.
The internal classification of Arawakan byHenri Ramirez (2020) is as follows.[9][10][11] This classification differs quite substantially from his previous classification (Ramirez 2001[7]), but is very similar to the one proposed by Jolkesky (2016).[5]
12 subgroups consisting of 56 languages (29 living and 27 extinct) († = extinct)
In 1783, the Italian priestFilippo Salvatore Gilii recognized the unity of theMaipure language of the Orinoco andMoxos of Bolivia; he named their familyMaipure. It was renamedArawak by Von den Steinen (1886) and Brinten (1891) afterArawak in the Guianas, one of the major languages of the family. The modern equivalents areMaipurean orMaipuran andArawak orArawakan.
The termArawakan is now used in two senses. South American scholars useAruák forthe family demonstrated by Gilij and subsequent linguists. In North America, however, scholars have used the term to include a hypothesis adding theGuajiboan andArawan families. In North America, scholars use the nameMaipurean to distinguish the core family, which is sometimes calledcore Arawak(an) orArawak(an) proper instead.[12]
Kaufman (1990: 40) relates the following:
[The Arawakan] name is the one normally applied to what is here called Maipurean. Maipurean used to be thought to be a major subgroup of Arawakan, but all theliving Arawakan languages, at least, seem to need to be subgrouped with languages already found within Maipurean as commonly defined. The sorting out of the labels Maipurean and Arawakan will have to await a more sophisticated classification of the languages in question than is possible at the present state of comparative studies.
The languages called Arawakan or Maipurean were originally recognized as a separate group in the late nineteenth century. Almost all the languages now called Arawakan share a first-person singular prefixnu-, but Arawak proper hasta-. Other commonalities include a second-person singularpi-, relativeka-, and negativema-.
The Arawak language family, as constituted by L. Adam, at first by the name of Maypure, has been called by Von den Steinen "Nu-Arawak" from the prenominal prefix "nu-" for the first person. This is common to all the Arawak tribes scattered along the coasts from Suriname to Guyana.
Upper Paraguay has Arawakan-language tribes: theQuinquinaos, theLayanas, etc. (This is theMoho-Mbaure group of L. Quevedo). In the islands of Marajos, in the middle of the estuary of the Amazon, theAruan people spoke an Arawak dialect. The Guajira Peninsula (north ofVenezuela) is occupied by theWayuu tribe, also Arawakan speakers. In 1890–95, De Brette estimated a population of 3,000 persons in the Guajira peninsula.[13]
C. H. de Goeje's published vocabulary of 1928 outlines the Lokono/Arawak (Suriname and Guyana) 1400 items, comprising mostly morphemes (stems, affixes) and morpheme partials (single sounds), and only rarely compounded, derived, or otherwise complex sequences; and from Nancy P. Hickerson'sBritish Guiana manuscript vocabulary of 500 items. However, most entries which reflect acculturation are direct borrowings from one or another of three model languages (Spanish, Dutch, English). Of the 1400 entries in de Goeje, 106 reflect European contact; 98 of these are loans. Nouns which occur with the verbalizing suffix described above number 9 out of the 98 loans.[14]
Though a great deal of variation can be found from language to language, the following is a general composite statement of the consonants and vowels typically found in Arawak languages, according to Aikhenvald (1999):
Arawakan languages are polysynthetic and mostly head-marking. They have fairly complex verb morphology. Noun morphology is much less complex and tends to be similar across the family. Arawakan languages are mostly suffixing, with just a few prefixes.[15]
Arawakan languages tend to distinguish alienable and inalienable possession. A feature found throughout the Arawakan family is a suffix (whose reconstructed Proto-Arawakan form is /*-tsi/) that allows the inalienable (and obligatorily possessed) body-part nouns to remain unpossessed.[16] This suffix essentially converts inalienable body-part nouns into alienable nouns. It can only be added to body-part nouns and not to kinship nouns (which are also treated as inalienable). An example from the Pareci language is given below:[16]
Many Arawakan languages have a system of classifier morphemes that mark the semantic category of the head noun of a noun phrase on most other elements of the noun phrase.[17] The example below is from the Tariana language, in which classifier suffixes mark the semantic category of the head noun on all elements of a noun phrase other than the head noun (including adjectives, numerals, demonstratives, possessives) and on the verb of the clause:
Most Arawakan languages have split-intransitive alignment systems of subject and object cross-referencing on the verb.[18] The agentive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with prefixes, whereas the patientive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with suffixes. The following example from Baniwa of Içana shows a typical Arawakan split-intransitive alignment:[19]
The prefixes and suffixes used for subject and object cross-referencing on the verb are stable throughout the Arawakan languages, and can therefore be reconstructed for Proto-Arawakan. The table below shows the likely forms of Proto-Arawakan:[20]
Arawak-speaking peoples migrated to islands in the Caribbean some 2,500 years ago,[22] settling the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. It is possible that some poorly attested extinct languages in North America, such as the languages of theCusabo andCongaree in South Carolina, were members of this family.[23]
Taíno, commonly called Island Arawak, was spoken on the islands ofCuba,Dominican Republic,Haiti,Puerto Rico,Jamaica, and theBahamas. A few Taino words are still used byEnglish,Spanish, orHaitian Creole-speaking descendants in these islands. The Taíno language was scantily attested but its classification within the Arawakan family is uncontroversial. Its closest relative among the better attested Arawakan languages seems to be theWayuu language, spoken in Colombia and Venezuela. Scholars have suggested that the Wayuu are descended from Taínorefugees, but the theory seems impossible to prove or disprove.[citation needed]
Garífuna (or Black Carib) is another Arawakan language originating on the islands. It developed as the result of forced migration among people of mixed Arawak, Carib, and African descent.[24] It is estimated to have about 195,800 speakers inHonduras,Nicaragua,Guatemala andBelize combined.[25]
Today the Arawakan languages with the most speakers are among the more recentTa-Arawakan (Ta-Maipurean) groups:Wayuu [Goajiro], with about 300,000 speakers; andGarifuna, with about 100,000 speakers. The Campa group is next;Asháninca or Campa proper has 15–18,000 speakers; and Ashéninca 18–25,000. After that probably comesTerêna, with 10,000 speakers; andYanesha' [Amuesha] with 6–8,000.[citation needed]
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^Santos-Granero, F. 2002. The Arawakan matrix: ethos, language, and history in native South America. InComparative Arawakan Histories: Rethinking Language Family and Culture Area in Amazonia, ed. J Hill, F Santos-Granero, pp. 25–50. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
^Eriksen L, Danielsen S. 2014. The Arawakan matrix. InThe Native Language of South America: Origins, Development, Typology, ed. L O'Connor, P Muysken, pp. 152–76. New York: Cambridge University Press.
^Aikhenvald, A. (2002). Language contact in Amazonia. Oxford University Press. Accessed fromDiACLArchived 2023-03-07 at theWayback Machine, 9 February 2020.
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Payne, David (1991). "A classification of Maipuran (Arawakan) languages based on shared lexical retentions". In Derbyshire, D. C.; Pullum, G. K. (eds.).Handbook of Amazonian languages. Vol. 3. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 355–499.
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de Créqui-Montfort, G.; Rivet, P. (1913b). Linguistique Bolivienne: La langue Lapaču ou Apolista. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 45:512-531.
de Créqui-Montfort, G.; Rivet, P. (1913c). Linguistique bolivienne. La langue Saraveka. Journal de la Sociétè des Americanistes de Paris, 10:497-540.
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Payne, D. L. (1991). A classification of Maipuran (Arawakian) languages based on shared lexical retentions. In: D. C. Derbyshire & G. K. Pullun (orgs.), Handbook of Amazonian languages, 355-499. The Hague: Mouton.
Ramirez, H. (2001a). Dicionário Baniwa-Portugues. Manaus: Universidade do Amazonas.
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Data sets
Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018, November 27). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon et al.'s "Diversity of Arawakan Languages" from 2019 (Version v1.0.1). Zenodo.doi:10.5281/zenodo.1564336
Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon's "Arawakan and Tukanoan contacts in Northwest Amazonia prehistory" from 2017 (Version v1.1) [Data set]. Zenodo.doi:10.5281/zenodo.1322713
Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon's "Annotated Swadesh Lists for Arawakan Languages" from 2017 (Version v1.0.1) [Data set]. Zenodo.doi:10.5281/zenodo.1318200
Reconstructions
Matteson, Esther (1972). "Proto Arawakan". In Matteson, Esther (ed.).Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages. Mouton. pp. 160–242.
Noble, G. Kingsley (1965).Proto-Arawakan and its descendants. Publications of the Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics. Vol. 38. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.OCLC344482.
Valenti, Donna Marie (1986).A Reconstruction of the Proto-Arawakan Consonantal System (PhD thesis). New York University.
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