Arakan အရက္ခ
Arakan at its peak
Status	Dhanyawadi Kingdom (4th/6th century) Waithali kingdom (8th century-10th century) Lemro Period (11th century) Vassal ofBengal Sultanate (15th–16th century) Mrauk U Kingdom (15th century-18th century) Part ofKonbaung Dynasty (18th century) Part ofImperial Japan (1942–1945) Part ofBritish Burma (19th century) Province ofMyanmar (1948–present)
Capital	Dhanyawadi Waithali Pyinsa Parein Nareinzara Toungoo Khreit Launggyet (1251–1429 Mrauk-U (1430–1785) Sittwe (19th century-present)
Official languages	Rakhine,Burmese
Religion	Buddhism,Islam,Hinduism,Animism,Christianity

Arakan (/ˈærəkæn/ or/ˌɑːrəˈkɑːn/;^[2]Burmese:ရက္ခိုင်[jəkʰàɪɴ],Rakhine:အရက္ခ[à.ɹəkʰa̼]), formerlyromanized asAracan, is thehistorical geographical name for the northeastern coastal region of theBay of Bengal, covering present-dayBangladesh andMyanmar. Historically known as "Arakan" for several centuries, the region is now generally associated with the geographically smallerRakhine State, situated in western Myanmar. The people of the region were known as theArakanese.^[3][4][5] When Burma gained independence fromBritain in 1948, the Burmese part of the region was called Arakan State. TheBurmese military junta changed its name to Rakhine State in 1989 – along with the country's name being changed from Burma toMyanmar, and its capital name from Rangoon toYangon, while Burmese language name remained unchanged as မြန်မာ (Myanmar) and ရန်ကုန် (Yangon).

Arakan's first states can be traced to the 4th century. Arakan was one of the firstIndianised kingdoms inSoutheast Asia. It was home to the sacredMahamuni sculpture of Buddha, which was later transferred toMandalay by Burmese conquerors in the 18th century. For 356 years between 1428 and 1784, Arakan was ruled by theKingdom of Mrauk U from the city ofMrauk U.^[4] In 1784, Arakan was annexed by theKonbaung Dynasty under the reign of King Bodawpaya.^[6]

Arakan Division was a part ofBritish India and later fell underBritish rule in Burma. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Arakan was one of the world’s leadingrice exporters. DuringWorld War II, several Arakan Campaigns were conducted byAllied forces against the Japanese as part of theBurma Campaign. After Burma became independent in 1948, Arakan saw a movement for autonomy. Human rights deteriorated in the country after the1962 Burmese coup d'état. In 1974, a discriminatory citizenship law was enacted. In 1982, most Arakanese Muslims were stripped of citizenship. A segregated system of citizenship was introduced by Burma's military rulers. Both Arakanese Buddhists and Muslims experienced growing nationalism, including hopes for self-rule. The region was the site of theRohingya genocide in 2016 and 2017.

According toArthur Purves Phayre, a report by theRoyal Geographical Society in November 1882 included a paper by one Colonel Yule who discussed the oldest records of a sea route to China from the Middle East. Yule identified Arakan with the country of "Argyre" which means The Land of Silver or Silverland mentioned by the Greco-Roman geographerClaudius Ptolemy.^[7]

According to Aananda Candra Inscription inscripted in 8th Century CE, Arakan Region was mention as Arakkhadesha by Ananda Candra King.^[8]

In early 15th Century CE,Niccolò de' Conti, a Venetian merchant and explorer mentioned Arakan as Rachani in his book the travels of Nicolo di Conti (c. A.D. 1396–1469) as recorded c. A.D. 1445 byPoggio Bracciolini.^[9]

Portuguese records spelled the name asArracao.^[10] The name was spelled asAraccan in many old European maps and publications.^[11] The area constitutedArakan Division underBritish rule in Burma.^[12] The name “Arakan” State was in use until 1989 when the military government of Burma changed the Latin spelling name to Rakhine State.^[13]

The region known in Europe as Arakan is the 350 miles (560 km)-long eastern coastal shore of theBay of Bengal. It comprises a long narrow strip of land and stretches from the banks of theKarnaphuli River on the border of the Chittagong Hills area inBangladesh in the north toCape Negrais in the south.^[14]

The Arakan region is shaped like a crescent around the eastern Bay of Bengal. Its geography is wider in the north and becomes narrower southward. It is about 90 miles or 145 kilometres wide at its broadest. TheArakan Mountains (also called Arakan Yoma), a range that forms the eastern boundary of the region, isolates Arakan from the rest of Myanmar. The coast has several sizable large islands and multiple small islands and islets includingRamree Island,Cheduba, three Baronga Islands and Kun Chaung Island.^[15]

Arakan has atropical monsoon climate (KöppenAm) with adry season from mid-November to mid-April and an extrememonsoonalwet season from mid-April to mid-November. Between June and August when monsoonal winds drive saturated air onto the high Arakan Yoma, most of the region receives over 1,000 millimetres or 40 inches of rainfall per month.

The region's principal rivers from north to south are:

Only one-tenth of Arakan's generally hilly land is cultivated.Rice is the dominant main crop in the delta areas, where most of the population is concentrated. Other crops includecoconut,Nipa palm,sugarcane,peanut,sesame,chili pepper,shallot,tobacco and other seasonal fruits and vegetables.^[16]

The major cities and main towns areSittwe (Akyab),Mrauk U,Sandoway,Kyaukpyu,Kyauktaw,Ramree andTaungup.^[16]

Arakan has been recognized “as one among other Burmese kingdoms competing for the control of power in Lower Burma”.^[17] The cities ofBago,Bagan, andInwa were centers of political power in Burma proper. In contrast, independent Arakanese states were based in the capitals ofDhanyawadi,Vesali,Laungyet, andMrauk-U. The ruins of these cities are located in northern Arakan in proximity to the borderland of Bengal.

It is unclear who the earliest inhabitants were; some historians believe the earliest settlers included the BurmeseMro tribe but there is a lack of evidence and no clear tradition of their origin or written records of their history.^[18] Arakanese traditional history holds that Arakan was inhabited by theRakhine since 3000 BCE, but there is no archaeological evidence to support the claim.^[19]: 17 According to British historianDaniel George Edward Hall, who wrote extensively on the history of Burma, "The Burmese do not seem to have settled in Arakan until possibly as late as the tenth century AD. Hence earlier dynasties are thought to have been Indian, ruling over a population similar to that of Bengal. All the capitals known to history have been in the north near modern Akyab".^[20]

Arakan came under strong Indic influence from theIndian subcontinent, particularly the ancient kingdoms of the Ganges delta. Arakan was one of the first regions in Southeast Asia to adoptDharmic religions. It became one of the earliestIndianized kingdoms in Southeast Asia.Buddhist missionaries from theMauryan Empire traveled through Arakan to other parts ofSoutheast Asia.^[21][22]Paul Wheatley chronicled the "Indianization" of Arakan.^[23]

According toPamela Gutman, "Arakan was ruled by kings who adopted Indian titles and traditions to suit their own environment. Indian Brahmins conducted royal ceremonies, Buddhist monks spread their teachings, traders came and went and artists and architects used Indian models for inspiration. In the later period, there was also influence from the Islamic courts of Bengal and Delhi".^[24] Gutman writes that “the maintenance of a state appropriate to kingship required the ministrations of increasing numbers of craftsmen and artisans, the most skilled of whom were often accommodated within the royal compound. It required the labour of a peasantry who contributed the surplus produce of their fields as a kind of tax in kind for the support of the court, and a band of armed retainers who acted as household guards, organised the peasantry as militia and enforced the authority of the ruler. Material defences – walls and moats protecting the palace and the city – were constructed and the city-state, the nagara, evolved. These transformations saw the tribal chieftain replaced by a divine king, shaman by brahmin priest, tribesman as cultivators by peasants, tribesmen as warriors by an army, and favoured the development of occupational specialisation. They were reflected in the conversion of the chief’s hut into a palace, the spirit house into a temple, the object of the spirit cult into the palladium of the state, and the boundary spirits which previously had protected the village into Indianized Lokapalas presiding over cardinal directions. This process can clearly be traced in Arakan, which received Indian culture by land from Bengal and by sea from other parts of India”.^[24]

Due to the evidence ofSanskrit inscriptions found in the region, historians believe the founders of the first Arakanese state were Indian.^[19]: 17 The first Arakanese state flourished inDhanyawadi between the 4th and 6th centuries. The city was the center of a large trade network linked to India, China and Persia.^[19]: 18 Power then shifted to the city ofWaithali, where theCandra dynasty ruled. Waithali became a wealthy trading port.^[19]: 18 The Candra-ruledHarikela state was known as the Kingdom of Ruhmi to the Arabs.^[25] Evidence points to the use of the ancient Bengali script in Arakan.^[26] The Anandacandra inscription recorded the reign of the Candra dynasty.^[27]

Since in the 8th century, Arab merchants began conducting missionary activities in southeast Asia.^[28] Some researchers have speculated that Muslims usedtrade routes in the region to travel to India andChina.^[29] A southern branch of theSilk Road connected India, Burma and China since theNeolithic period.^[30][31] It is unclear whether theRakhine people were one of the tribes of the BurmesePyu city-states because the people in those states at the time spoke aTibeto-Burman language while Arakan (Rakhine) speakers are from theSino-Tibetan language family. They began migrating to Arakan through the Arakan Mountains in the 9th century. The Rakhines settled in the valley of theLemro River. Their cities included Sambawak I,Pyinsa,Parein, Hkrit, Sambawak II,Myohaung,Toungoo andLaunggret.^{[19]: 18–20}

Following the decline of theWaithali Kingdom around 818 CE, the political center of Arakan shifted to the Lemro Valley. Four principal cities known asPyinsa,Parein,Hkrit, andLaunggyet served as successive capitals.^[19]

The Lemro period was an era in Arakanese history that lasted from the 9th to the 15th centuries CE. It is defined by the establishment of several successive capitals along the Lemro River, known collectively as "Lemro," which translates to "four cities" in the Rakhine language.^[32][33]

TheLaunggyet Dynasty (1251–1429) later marked the final phase of the Lemro period in Arakan's history.

Arakan was a kingdom under siege in the 14th and 15th centuries. Mon invaders from Lower Burma conquered southern Arakan, includingSandoway. In 1404, Burmese forces from Upper Burma conquered Laungyet. The ruler of Laungyet fled to theBengal Sultanate during the Burmese invasion. According toJacques Leider, Min Saw Mun fled to Bengal in 1406 and returned to Arakan in 1428. Min Saw Mun arrived in Bengal for self-imposed exile during the reign of SultanGhiyasuddin Azam Shah (1389–1410) and left for Arakan during the reign of SultanJalaluddin Muhammad Shah (1415–1432).^[34] An academic consensus prevails that Min Saw Mun returned to Arakan, regained the throne and shifted the capital from Laungyet toMrauk-U (erstwhile Mrohaung). The establishment of the capital at Mrauk-U heralded the most significant period in the history of Arakan. A new cosmopolitan kingdom emerged. In Arakanese traditional history, the restoration of the throne is glorified.

Bengali literary texts and coinage are among the chief primary sources to detail the history of Arakan during the Mrauk-U period. Min Saw Mun regained control of the throne with military assistance from the Bengal Sultanate. Arakan emerged as avassal state of Bengal.^[35] Burhanuddin became the first Muslim defense minister of Arakan.

Evidence points to an alliance between Bengal and Arakan to restore Min Saw Mun to the throne. The most significant evidence is that all post-restoration Arakanese rulers adopted Muslim titles in addition to native titles. This indicates a relationship with the Islamic court of Bengal. Restoring the throne of a neighbouring kingdom was not unprecedented for Bengal. The throne of Tripura was also restored by the Bengal Sultanate. Arakanese traditional history states that Arakan was a tributary state of the Bengal Sultanate for a certain period.^[35]

The kings of Arakan adopted both Buddhist and Muslim titles after the restoration. In the accounts of foreign travelers like Fray Sebastian Manrique and Bengali members of the Arakanese court, the kings are referred with their Muslim titles. But the kings did not convert to Islam and remained Buddhists. It appears that Arakan’s kings were following ancient footsteps by imitating royal customs from the subcontinent. Arakan not only integrated Hindu-Buddhist rituals from the subcontinent; but it also integrated the influence of Islamic India, particularly the Bengal Sultanate. Between 1430 and 1638, a total of 16 kings are recorded to have used Muslim titles (nicknames).^[36]

In conclusion, the Arakan State has always been predominantly Buddhist, with the majority known today as the Rakhine people. Although all the kings of Arakan had Muslim titles (nicknames), none of them adopted the religion; they remained as Buddhists.

• 
  KingMin Hti of Arakan
• 
  KingMin Bin Statue
• 
  KingSanda Thudhamma ofArakan.
• 
  Maha Thammada, the last king of Arakan

Arakan became home to a growing Muslim community. They included Muslim traders from theIndian Ocean trade network andSufi missionaries who established themselves along the coasts of Arakan. More Muslims were found among the thousands of inhabitants of Bengal who were forcibly deported to Arakan. They included artists, craftsmen, soldiers, and highly educated people who were employed by the royal court.^[37] Theslave trade was the backbone of the Arakanese economy. Leider explains that “Arakan was sadly famed as the main provider of slaves in the Bay of Bengal” unlike Bengal's trade inmuslin, silk, shipbuilding, and saltpeter.^[38]

The kings imported labour, bureaucrats and artisans by raiding Lower Burma and southeast Bengal. They provided the craftsmen, guards, and artists at the palace; the rowers for the fleet, or the farmers on the royal lands. Some became ministers in the royal court. The heavy presence ofBengali Muslims was documented by Arakanese and European records. The Mons were deported after the fall ofPegu; they formed a group which could still be identified until the end of the eighteenth century. Afghan soldiers fleeing the Mughal advance and Portuguese traders and adventurers settled in Arakan. They accepted appointments in the army. The hill chiefs of northern and southern Arakan provided troops who were ethnic Thet, Mrung, Chin, or from other small minority groups. The elite were ethnically and culturally diverse.^[39]

Min Khayi (Ali Khan) was the first to challenge Bengali hegemony.Ba Saw Phyu (Kalima Shah) defeated Bengal SultanRukunuddin Barbak Shah in 1459.Min Bin (Zabuk Shah) conqueredChittagong. Taking advantage of theMughal Empire's invasion campaign of Bengal, the Arakan navy andpirates dominated a coastline of 1000 miles, spanning from theSundarbans toMoulmein. The kingdom's coastline was frequented by Arab,Dutch,Danish andPortuguese traders. Control of theKaladan River and Lemro River valleys led to increasedinternational trade, making Mrauk U prosperous. The reigns of Min Phalaung (Sikender Shah), Min Rajagiri (Salim Shah I) and grandson Min Khamaung (Hussein Shah) strengthened the wealth and power of Mrauk U.^{[19]: 20–21} Arakan colluded in theslave trade with thePortuguese settlement in Chittagong. After conquering the port city ofSyriam in the early 1600s, Arakan appointed the Portuguese mercenary Philip De Brito e Nicota as the governor of Syriam. But Nicota later transferred Syriam to the authority ofPortuguese India.^[19] Even after independence from the Sultans of Bengal, the Arakanese kings continued the custom of maintaining Muslim titles.^[40] They compared themselves toSultans and fashioned themselves afterMughal rulers. They also continued to employ Indians and Muslims from Bengal in prestigious positions within the royal administration.^[41] The court adopted Indian and Islamic fashions from neighbouring Bengal.^[41][42] Mrauk U hostedmosques,temples,shrines,seminaries andlibraries.^[19]: 22Syed Alaol andDaulat Qazi were prominent poets of Arakan.^[43] The Santikan Mosque was built in Mrauk U.^[44]

In 1660,Shah Shuja, the brother ofEmperor Aurangzeb and a claimant of thePeacock Throne, received asylum in Mrauk U. Members of Shuja's entourage were recruited in the Arakanese army and court. They were kingmakers in Arakan until the Burmese conquest.^[45] Arakan suffered a major defeat to the forces ofMughal Bengal during theBattle of Chittagong in 1666, when Mrauk U lost control of southeast Bengal. The Mrauk U dynasty's reign continued until the 18th century.

• Ruins of Mrauk U
• 
  Skyline of Mrauk U
• 
  Koe-Thaung Gateway
• 
  Ratanabon
• 
  Pagodas in Mrauk U

Arakan and the Burmese Empire in 1767

The Burmese Empire in 1824 covering Arakan

TheKonbaung Dynasty conquered Arakan in 1784. Mrauk U was devastated during the invasion.^[19]: 22 The Burmese Empire executed thousands of men and deported a considerable portion of people from the Arakanese population to central Burma.^[46] The independence of Arakan ended in 1784 when Burmese forces conquered Mrauk-U. The Arakanese royal court was deported to central Burma. The religious relics of the kingdom, including the sacredMahamuni sculpture of Buddha, were seized and transferred toAmarapura inMandalay.

Rakhine rebellions were suppressed. Many Rakhine Buddhists fled by sea to theBarisal region of Bengal, where their descendants continue to live today.^[47] It is also likely that Arakanese Muslims became dispersed across Burma and Bengal as either deportees or refugees due to the conflict. Arakan experienced a demographic vacuum as a result of the Burmese conquest. There were several uprisings against Burmese rule, including a rebellion by Chin Bya in 1811.^[48] The uprisings caused recurrent Burmese raids into British India, which led to the First Anglo-Burmese War.

The Burmese Empire ceded Arakan to theBritish East India Company in the 1826Treaty of Yandabo. Arakan became one of thedivisions of British India. Initially governed as part of theBengal Presidency, it received many settlers from neighboringChittagong Division. The settlers became influential in commerce, agriculture and shipping.

During British rule, Arakan Division was one of the largestrice exporters in the world.^[49] Arakan was the pioneer of the rice industry in British Burma. The emergence of Burma as a global rice exporter in the 20th century can be traced to Arakan. As one of the earliest regions to be conquered by the British, Arakan saw the removal of export restrictions imposed by the Burmese Empire. Rice was exproted to Bengal and beyond.^[50] Akyab (now Sittwe), the divisional capital of Arakan, was located in proximity to theChittagong Division ofBritish Bengal. In 1840, Akyab exported 74,500 tons of rice valued at an estimated 1.2 million rupees. In 1855, Akyab exported 162,000 tons of rice valued at an estimated 3 million rupees. The growth in rice exports was driven by the expansion of farmland – by clearing out jungles and cultivating paddy fields.

Agriculturalists fromChittagong played an important role in the development of the rice economy in Arakan. When the British took control of Arakan, the borderland with Bengal was filled with dense vegetation. British objectives in Arakan centred on stimulating the rice economy. Transforming forests and barren land into paddy fields offered the potential of generating revenue by taxing rice farmers. The colonial economy in South and Southeast Asia depended on the taxation of farmers. Arakan neighboured the densely populated province of Bengal where demand for rice was high. Rice was a staple food of Bengal and demand for rice surged during periods of food shortages and famine. Arakan met this demand and profited from the rice trade. Akyab had shipping links with the ports of Bengal, includingCalcutta, Chittagong,Narayanganj,Goalundo andDacca. By the 20th century, Akyab enjoyed shipping links with Europe, Malaya, China, Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies. Arakanese rice was being exported to many parts of the world. TheAmerican Civil War disrupted the rice supply chain from the southern states of the United States of America. European traders and millers looked for an alternative location for rice imports. British Burma, with its expanding and low cost rice production, provided a lucrative alternative to the United States. The arrival of leading European banking and shipping companies in Burma propelled the rice trade into the single most important cash crop sector of the Burmese economy. In 1864,Liverpool imported an estimated 1000 tons of rice from Burma.^[52] The opening of theSuez Canal lowered the cost of shipping from Burma. European firms began to set up rice mills in Burma itself. Indian and Chinese merchants proliferated Burma’s ports. The rice economy supported the development of infrastructure, public services and other sectors of commerce. Rice from Lower Burma and Arakan became the backbone of the Burmese economy.

In 1869, Muslims constituted 12.24% of the population in Arakan. In 1931, they constituted 25.56%. In the divisional capital Akyab, the share of the Muslim population increased from 20.67% in 1869 to 38.41% in 1931. The British administration considered Chittagonian migration from Bengal as a key factor in the growth of the Muslim population. The colonial government encouraged Chittagonian migration as part of its policy to expand the rice economy in Arakan. The northern part of Arakan received the largest influx of settlers. The township of Naaf (now Maungdaw), which bordered Chittagong Division, became an extension of farmlands inCox’s Bazar. The Naaf economy was essentially integrated with the greater Chittagong economy. Between the 1870s and 1880s, the Naaf experienced a surge in population growth due to immigration. Settlers included not only Muslims and Hindus from Chittagong; but also returning Buddhist refugees who were displaced by earlier wars. Muslims formed the overwhelming majority of settlers. This was complemented by the transformation of waste lands into rice fields. Settlers constituted 70% of Naaf’s population, owned 79% of cultivated land and held 84% of tax-paying landed property.^[53] Colonial census reports in 1921 and 1931 described Arakanese Muslims with various terms, including “Arakan Mahomedans”, “Chittagonian Mahomedans born in Burma”, “Chittagonian Mahomedans born outside of Burma”, “Bengali Mahomedans born in Burma”, “Bengali Mahomedans born outside of Burma”, “Indian Muslims” and “Indo-Burmans”.^[3] In 1937, Arakan became part ofBurma Province, which was separated from India into a distinctcrown colony.

DuringWorld War II, Arakan endured theJapanese occupation of Burma. TheBurma National Army and the pro-BritishV Force were active in the region. Sectarian tensions flared during theArakan massacres in 1942. Japanese rule ended with the successfulBurma Campaign byAllied forces.

The division's seaport and capital Akyab were dominated byArakanese Indians who were aligned with the British, which caused tension withArakanese Burmese, many of whom were aligned with the Japanese.^[54] Both groups were represented as natives in theLegislative Council of Burma and theLegislature of Burma. In the 1940s, Arakanese Muslims appealed toMuhammad Ali Jinnah to incorporate the townships of the Mayu River valley into theDominion of Pakistan.^[55]

Arakan became one of theUnion of Burma's divisions after independence from British rule. Burma was aparliamentary democracy until the1962 Burmese coup d'état. The northern part of Arakan was governed by the central government inRangoon in the early 1960s. Known as theMayu Frontier District, it covered townships near the border withEast Pakistan.

In 1982, the Burmesejunta enacted theBurmese nationality law which did not recognize Arakanese Indians as one of Burma's ethnic groups, thereby stripping them of their citizenship. In 1989, the Burmese government altered the country's name from Burma to Myanmar. In the 1990s, theState Peace and Development Council changed the name of Arakan State toRakhine State. The province was renamed after theRakhine ethnic group. However, the new name is not accepted as legitimate by many in both the Rakhine andRohingya communities, instead preferring the historical term Arakan.

Rakhine-led groups like theArakan Liberation Army have sought independence for the region. Other groups, including theArakan Rohingya National Organization, have demandedautonomy. The region witnessed military crackdowns duringOperation King Dragon in 1978; in 1991 and 1992 after the8888 uprising and1990 Burmese general election; the2012 Rakhine State riots, the2015 Rohingya refugee crisis andRohingya persecution in Myanmar (2016-present).

The people of Arakan have historically been called the Arakanese.^[3] The population predominantly consists ofTibeto-Burmans Rakhine Buddhists and significant population ofIndo-Aryans Rohingya Muslims. Tibeto-Burman Arakanese speak theArakanese language, also known asRakhine which is closely related toBurmese.^[56][57][58] The Indo-Aryan Arakanese (Rohingya) speaks theRohingya language which is closely related toChittagonian language. Other languages spoken by smaller communities in Rakhine state include the Tibeto-Burman people ofChak,Asho Chin,Ekai,Kumi,Laitu,Mru,Songlai,Sumtu,Uppu andChakma.^[59]

Thegovernment of Myanmar recognizes Tibeto-Burman Arakanese as theRakhine people. It also recognizes sections of the Muslim community, including theKamein.^{[citation needed]} But Myanmar does not recognize theRohingya.

Arakan Division had the largest percentage of Indians inBritish Burma.^[60]

• Military history of Arakan
• History of Southeast Asia
• History of Rakhine

• Aye Chan (Autumn 2005)."The Development of a Muslim Enclave in Arakan (Rakhine) State of Burma (Myanmar)"(PDF).SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research.3 (2). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 12 July 2013. Retrieved11 September 2017.
• Yegar, Moshe (1972).Muslims of Burma(PDF). Wiesbaden: Verlag Otto Harrassowitz.
• Yegar, Moshe (2002).Between integration and secession: The Muslim communities of the Southern Philippines, Southern Thailand, and Western Burma / Myanmar. Lanham, MD:Lexington Books.ISBN 978-0-7391-0356-2.

• Media related toArakan at Wikimedia Commons

• History of Rakhine
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• Former countries in Burmese history
• Former kingdoms
• Rakhine State

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