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Arab cuisine collectively refers to theregional culinary traditions of theArab world, consisting of theMaghreb (the west) and theMashriq (the east).[1] These cuisines are centuries-old and reflect the culture of trading in ingredients, spices, herbs, and commodities among theArabs. The regions have many similarities, but also unique traditions. They have also been influenced by climate, cultivation, and mutual commerce.
Medieval Arab writers from the 9th to the 16th centuries wrote numerous cookbooks documenting nearly 4,500 recipes from the Arab world, spanning regions likeAl-Andalus, Egypt, Syria, theMaghreb, and Iraq.[2]
Thewhite breadbarazidhaj was made with high-quality wheat flour, similar toraqaq bread but thicker; thefermented dough was leavened usually with yeast and "baker'sborax" (buraq) and baked in atandoor. One poetic verse describing this bread:[3]
"In the farthest end of Karkh ofBaghdad, a baker I saw offering bread, wondrous fair.
From purest essence of wheat contrived. Radiant and absolute, you may see your image reflected, crystal clear.
Barazij rounds glowing with lovely whiteness, more playful than gorgeous singing girls,
They look like crystal trays, and were they indeed so, they would have served us as plates.
Raqaq[4] bread was made in two varieties,labiq (soft, thin flatbreads) andjarmazaj (dry, thin bread flavored withtamarisk seeds).
Numerous recipes for sauces (sibagh) have survived from historicArabic cookbooks. The 10th-centuryKitab al-Tabikh written byIbn Sayyar al-Warraq gives several recipes to be served with roasted fish, attributed to various sources.
ToIbrahim ibn al-Mahdi are credited twosibagh recipes, one prepared by addingrue,caraway, thyme,asafetida andcassia to the mustard sauce, and another made by mashing vinegar-soaked raisins with garlic, walnut, mustard, vinegar, and seasonings like asafetida andanise.
From the seventhAbbasid caliphAl-Ma'mun's recipe collection comes asibagh made withwhey, walnut, garlic, olive oil andmurri.
There are similar recipes meant for poultry dishes prepared with seasonings like ginger, pomegranate,spikenard, and cloves.
A surviving poem aboutsibagh is attributed to CaliphAl-Mu'tamid:[5]
The concept ofsibagh is so subtle that none but the wise its depths may sound.
Walnut and garlic with yogurt whey are the most you may need for it.
Or make it with vinegar,mahrut, and coriander. But withanjudhan it will be even better.
If not, then mustard and garlic mixed withanjudhan and onion, equal parts, will make your relish.
Or with just vinegar and onion eat your fish and it will still be a tasty dish.
Described as the "food of kings" and "supreme judge of all sweets",lauzinaj was an almond-basedconfection that had enteredmedieval European cuisine by the 13th century fromAndalusian influence, returningCrusaders and Latin translations of cookery books. There are two versions of the dish known from medieval texts:[6]
Vegetables includeleeks,endive,melilot,fenugreek,okra, onions,purslane,Jew's mallow andradish.[7] Boiledasparagus is served witholive oil andmurri. The cooking water may be sweetened withhoney and seasoned withcilantro, rue,anise andblack pepper, and used as a beverage either by itself with honey, or added to wine.[8]
Some vegetables are consumed raw, but asparagus,cauliflower,white soybeans, leeks,orach, a variety of mushroom known asghushina,[clarification needed]chard,cabbage,carrot,turnip, freshfennel andeggplant are usually boiled.[9]
Some vegetable dishes are served cold. One example of such a dish is eggplant with fried onion, fresh herbs and olive oil dressed with fermented sauces, vinegar and caraway. There are several cold eggplant dishes that are similar, some made with smoked eggplant, adding nuts like ground walnuts or almonds, and sometimes different seasonings likesaffron,cassia, andgalangal.
A dish for fried carrots with fresh herbs, dressing and spices was described by the poet Kushajim:[10][11]
Dinars of carnelian and gold in a vessel so delicate, it may almost melt and flow.
All radiating with luster like carnelian shimmering on pearls.
In the vessel harmoniously combined, here together and there disperse.
The spices emitting fragrance like wine mingled with sweet breeze.
On top are pearls and silver decked with gems,
Which the cook delicately fashioned, a gorgeous dish with flavor and perfume.
The scattered rue is flowers of turquoise gems, vibrantly green,
Jiggling with murri and olive oil, ebbing and flowing with sheen.
Arab cuisine uses specific and unique foods and spices. Some of those foods are:
There are two basic structures for meals in theArab world: a regular schedule during most of the year and a second one unique to the month ofRamadan, in which observant Muslims fast from dawn until sunset.[15]
Breakfast is usually a quick meal, consisting of bread and dairy products, chieflylabneh and white cheeses, served with tea and sometimesfruit preserves.Manakeesh are also commonly eaten for breakfast.
Lunch is considered the main meal of the day. The main dish usually consists of meat (lamb, beef, poultry or fish) with rice, lentils, and vegetables (both fresh and cooked). The vegetables and meat are sometimes cooked together in a sauce (oftentomato, although others are also popular).Salads andmezze are served as side dishes to the main meal. Most households add bread.
A variety of drinks can be served for lunch, such asayran,tamarind, and variousfruit juices. Regional drinks includekarkadeh anderq sous in Egypt, andnaqe'e al zabib in Yemen. With the advent ofglobalization,soft drinks have also become popular.
Dinner is traditionally the lightest meal, although in modern times, dinner has become more important with regards to entertaining guests due to the hours of the workday.
Iftar (also calledFutuur) is the meal taken atdusk when the fast is over. In Islamic tradition, the fast is broken by eating adate.[16]
This is often followed by a soup, oftenlentil soup, but alsochicken soup,oat soup, or potato soup.Freekeh is also common.
The third course is the main dish, usually eaten after theMaghreb prayer is conducted. The main dish is mostly similar to what is served in lunch year-round, except that cold drinks are served. A particularly popular drink during Ramadan isVimto.[17][18]
Suhur is the meal eaten just beforedawn, whenfasting must begin. It is eaten to help the person make it through the day with enough energy untildusk.
In addition to the two meals eaten duringRamadan (one for dinner and one for Suhur before dawn), sweets are consumed much more than usual during the month of Ramadan; sweets and fresh fruits are served between these two meals. Although most sweets are made all year-round such askanafeh, baklava, andbasbousa, some are made especially for Ramadan, such asqatayef.[19]
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Essential to any cooking in theArab world is the concept of hospitality and generosity. Meals are generally large family affairs, with much sharing and a great deal of warmth over the dinner table. Formal dinners and celebrations generally involve large quantities oflamb, and every occasion entails large quantities ofArabic coffee orArabic tea.
In thePersian Gulf region, a visitor is greeted by a great table ofdried fruits, fresh fruits, nuts and cakes with syrup. Dried fruits include figs, dates,apricots andplums. Fresh fruits include citruses, melons and pomegranate. Arabic coffee and tea are common refreshments. Spices are often added to the coffee and other drinks.
In the Khaleej al-Arab region, a guest should expect a dinner consisting of a very large platter calledkabsa, shared commonly, with a large amount of spiced rice, with spicy lamb, chicken, or both as separate dishes, with various stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes with atomato-based sauce.
Different types of bread are served with toppings specific to the region. Tea would certainly accompany the meal, as it is almost constantly consumed. Coffee would also be served.
In theMaghreb region, a visitor will find a table full of bread-like snacks, includingm’semen,baghrir, and other stuffed breads. These are served with honey,rosewater or olive oil.
There are also many different cookies and cakes included accompanied by plates with different kinds of nuts. Mint tea is often served with it in a traditional Maghrebian teapot.
In the Maghreb region, a guest may find a table with different kinds ofstews, calledmarqas ortajines. Dishes such ascouscous and othersemolina-based foods are also to be found.
These main dishes are accompanied by smallermezze-like plates with salads, sauces and dips. Breads such asm'semen,khobz andbaguette are used to eat the stews.
In an average Arab Levantine household, a visitor might expect a table full ofmezzes, breads topped with spices includingza'atar and nuts. In theLevant,Arabic coffee is a much-loved beverage, butArabic tea is also enjoyed in Jordan, Palestine, and some parts of Syria.
In the Levant, a guest will find a table with different kinds ofmezzes, nuts, dips and oils.Mezzes includehummus,baba ghanoush,falafel,kibbeh,kafta, smoked vegetables andtabouli salads. The nuts can differ from almonds to walnuts, with different spice coatings. The dips and oils include hummus and olive oil.
There are many regional differences in the Arab cuisine. For instance,mujadara in Syria and Lebanon is different frommujadara inJordan andPalestinian culture. Some dishes, such asmansaf (the national dish of Jordan), are native to certain countries and rarely, if ever, make an appearance in other countries.
Unlike most Western recipes,cinnamon is used in meat dishes, as well as in sweets such asbaklava. Dishes such astajine andcouscous can differ from Morocco to Libya, each having their own unique preparation. Other dishes, such as the Andalucian-Moorishbastilla andalbondigas have different traditional spice mixes and fillings.
Many Arabic food words are borrowed fromAramaic, the language originally spoken by the indigenous Christian inhabitants of Iraq and Syria.[14]
South Arabian andEastern Arabian cuisine today is the result of a combination of diverse influences, incorporatingLevantine andYemeni cuisines.[20]
Bukhari rice (رز بخاري) (ruz al Bukhari) is commonly eaten in theHejaz region of Saudi Arabia. It is made with spicy tomato sauce, flavoured chicken and a fresh salad.
Kabsa (Arabic:كبسة,romanized: kabsah) ormakbūs/machbūs (مكبوسGulf pron.:[mɑtʃˈbuːs]) is an Arabmixed rice dish that originates fromYemen.[21] It is commonly regarded as anational dish in all the countries of theArabian Peninsula. It can also be found in regions such as southernIran,Gaza inPalestine,[21] and theMalabar Coast ofIndia.
The cuisine of Yemen is in some ways distinct from other Arab cuisines. As in most Arab countries, chicken, goat, and lamb are eaten more often than beef, and fish is eaten mostly in coastal areas.
However, cheese, butter, and other dairy products are less common, especially in the cities and other urban areas. As with other Arab cuisines, the most widespread beverages are tea and coffee; tea is usually flavored withcardamom,clove, ormint, and coffee with cardamom.Karakaden,Naqe'e Al Zabib, anddiba'a are the most widespread cold beverages.
Although each region has its own variation,saltah (سلتة) is considered the national dish of Yemen. The base is a brown meat is calledmaraq (مرق), a dollop offenugreek froth, andsahawiq (سحاوق) orsahowqa (a mixture of chili peppers, tomatoes, garlic, and herbs ground into a salsa).
Rice, potatoes, scrambled eggs, and vegetables are common additions tosaltah. It is eaten with flat bread known asmulawah, which serves as a utensil to scoop up the food.
Other dishes widely known in Yemen includeaseed,fahsa,thareed,samak mafi,mandi,fattah,shakshouka,shafut,bint al-sahn,kabsa,jachnun,harees andHyderabadihaleem.[22][23][24]
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TheBedouins of theArabian Peninsula,Middle East andNorth Africa rely on a diet ofdates,dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and meat.[25] The meat comes from large animals such as cows, sheep, and lambs. They also eat dairy products: milk, cheese, yoghurt, and buttermilk (labneh).
Bedouins also use many different dried beans including white beans, lentils, and chickpeas. Vegetables that are commonly used are those that could be dried, such as pumpkins, but also vegetables that are more heat-resistant, such as aubergines.
They drink a lot of freshverbena tea,Arabic tea,Maghrebi mint tea, orArabic coffee. A daily break to freshen up with drinks is a much-loved tradition.
Common breads in the Maghreb arekhobz andkhaleej. Traditional dishes such asmarqa andtajines (stews) are also regularly prepared.
Breakfast consists of baked beans, bread, nuts, dried fruits, milk, yoghurt, and cheese with tea or coffee. Snacks also include nuts and dried fruits.
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Levantine cuisine is the traditional cuisine of theFertile Crescent. Although now divided intoSyria,Lebanon,Jordan, andPalestine, the region has historically been more united, and shares many culinary traditions. Although very similar, there is some variation within the Levantine area.
The main ingredients used include olive oil,za'atar, garlic,olives, and rice, and common dishes include a wide array ofmezze or bread dips, stuffings, and side dishes such ashummus,falafel,ful,tabouleh,labaneh, andbaba ghanoush.
Salads are often seasoned with lemon juice orpomegranate molasses. Foods are either grilled, baked, fried, or sautéed in olive oil; butter and cream are usually reserved for desserts. Vegetables are eaten raw, pickled, or cooked.
Levantine cuisine is also famous for its wide range of cheeses, includingshanklish,halloumi, andarisheh.
The main alcoholic drink in the Levant isarak, a strong distilled spirit of theanise drinks family (like the Greekouzo and the Frenchpastis). Levantine cuisine also incorporates wines made in Syria and Lebanon, such as the renownedDomaine de Bargylus.
Some ingredients are viewed as unique to Syrian and Lebanese cuisine, includingzucchini,vine leaves, andpistachios, among others.Eggplant, in particular, is considered particularly emblematic of Syrian cuisine.
A quintessential breakfast dish ismanakish,[26][27] consisting of bread (pita orsaj) topped withza'atar.[28] It can also be topped with cheese—oftenakkawi orkashkawan. When topped with ground beef it is calledsfiha.
Kibbeh, a dish based on spiced ground meat andbulgur wheat, is famous inSyria andLebanon. It is considered the national dish of both countries.[29] The city ofAleppo, in Syria, is particularly notable for supposedly having 17 different types of kibbeh,[30] which includes kibbeh withsumac (kibbeh sumaqiyye), kibbeh withquince (kibbeh safarjaliyeh), kibbeh with yogurt (kibbeh labaniye), and raw kibbeh (kibbeh nayyeh). The latter dish is quite popular amongChristians and is frequently consumed onChristmas orEaster.[31] It is also very popular in Lebanon.
Another famous dish isshawarma, which consists of meat cut into thin slices which are placed in an inverted cone and cooked using a spit or a grill. Shawarma sandwiches are arguably the most famous example ofstreet food in the Middle East.[32][33][34] The traditional shawarma sandwich contains pickles and a garlic sauce, which can either betoum (when the meat used is chicken) ortarator (when beef is used). In Lebanon,French fries are often added.
Kashk is a famous Syrian soup, alongside many soups made of lentils.
InJordan andPalestine (and to a lesser extent in southernSyria), there is a much stronger emphasis on roasting various meats, and cooking thick yogurt-like pastes from goat's milk.
Mansaf is a traditional meal, and the national dish of Jordan, having roots in the Bedouin population of the country. It consists of a leg of lamb or large pieces of mutton, on top of amarkook bread that has been topped with yellow rice. A type of thick dried yogurt made from goat's milk, calledjameed, is poured on top of the lamb and rice to give it its distinct flavor and taste. The dish is garnished with cooked pine nuts and almonds.Mansaf is mostly eaten during large dinner gatherings, and on special occasions such asRamadan orEid ul-Fitr.
Another common main dish ismusakhan, famous in northernJordan, the northern West Bank, andJerusalem. It consists oftaboon bread, topped with pieces of cookedsweet onions,sumac,saffron, andallspice. For large dinners, it can be topped by one or two roasted chickens on a single largetaboon bread.
Maqluba (lit. 'upside-down') is another popular meal in Jordan and central Palestine.[35] It consists of meat, rice, and fried vegetables placed in a pot which is flipped upside down when served, hence the name.[36]
Mujaddara, another food of the West Bank, as well as in the Levant in general, consists of cooked green lentils, withbulghur sauteed in olive oil.
The primary cheese of the Palestinianmezze isakkawi cheese, which is a semi-hard cheese with a mild, salty taste and sparsely filled with roasted sesame seeds. It is primarily used inknafeh.
The Palestinian city ofNablus is particularly renowned for itsknafeh, which consists of mild white cheese (usuallyakkawi cheese ornabulsi cheese) and a shredded wheat surface, which is covered by sugar syrup. In the Middle East, this variant ofknafeh is the most common.
Iraq is home to the first cookbook ever recorded in history, historically inBaghdad andMesopotamia. TheKitab al-tabikh is the oldest surviving Arabic cookbook, written byal-Warraq in the 10th century. It is compiled from the recipes of the 8th and 9th century courts of theAbbasid Caliphate in Baghdad. Due to its location, Iraq shares similarities in cooking and cuisines between both the surrounding regions of theArab world as well asTurkish andPersian cuisine.Iraqi cuisine mainly consists of meat, rather than appetizers. In Iraqi cuisine, the most common meats are chicken and lamb. The national dish of Iraq is theMasgouf fish, usually enjoyed with grilled tomatoes and onions.Iraqi cuisine uses more spices than most Arab cuisines. Iraq's main food crops include wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, anddates. Vegetables includeeggplant,okra, potatoes, and tomatoes. Pulses such as chickpeas and lentils are also quite common. Common meats in Iraqi cuisine are lamb and beef; fish and poultry are also used.
Soups and stews are often prepared and served with rice and vegetables.Biryani, although influenced byIndian cuisine, is milder with a different mixture of spices, and a wider variety of vegetables, including potatoes, peas, carrots, and onions.Dolma is also one of the most popular dishes.
The Iraqi cuisine is famous for itskebab, as well as itstikka. A wide variety of spices, pickles, andamba are also extensively used.
Egypt has a very rich cuisine with many unique customs. These customs also vary within Egypt itself, for example, in the coastal areas, like the coast of theMediterranean Sea and Canal, the diet relies heavily on fish. In the more rural areas, reliance on farm products is much heavier. Duck, geese, chicken, and river fish are the main animal protein sources. While Egyptians eat a lot of meat, Egyptian cuisine is rich invegetarian dishes; three national dishes of Egypt;ful medames,ta'miya (also known in other countries asfalafel), andkushari, are generally vegetarian. Fruits are also greatly appreciated in Egypt:mangos,grapes,bananas,apples,sycamore,guavas, andpeaches are very popular, especially because they are all domestically produced and are available at relatively low prices. A famous dessert from Egypt is calledom ali, which is similar to a bread and butter pudding made traditionally with puff pastry, milk and nuts. It is served all across the Middle East and is also made on special occasions such as Eid.[38] Bread is a staple in Egypt; the most common breads areeish baladi.
In comparison to itsMaghreb andLevantine neighbors, the cuisine ofSudan tends to be generous with spices. Sudanese cuisine has a rich variety in ingredients and creativity. Simple everyday vegetables are used to create stews andomelettes that are healthy yet nutritious, and full of energy and flair. These stews are calledmullah. One could have a zucchinimullah, spinach (riglah)mullah, etc. Popular dishes includeful medames,shahan ful,hummus,bamya (a stew made from ground, sun-dried okra), andgurasa (pancake), as well as different types of salads and sweets.
Maghreb cuisine is the cooking of theMaghreb region, the northwesternmost part of theArab world along theMediterranean Sea, consisting of the countries ofAlgeria,Libya,Morocco,Tunisia, andMauritania. In Maghrebi cuisine, the most commonstaple foods arewheat (forkhobz bread[39] andcouscous[40]),[41] fish, seafood, goat,[42] lamb,[42] beef,[42]dates,almonds,olives and various vegetables and fruits.[43]
Moroccan cuisine has long been considered one of the most diverse in the world. This is because Morocco has interacted extensively with the outside world for centuries. Over the centuries, chefs in Moroccan cuisine inFes,Meknes,Marrakech,Rabat andTetouan have been the basis for what is known as Moroccan cuisine today.
Tunisian cuisine is the style of cooking used by theTunisian people and is part of the Maghreb andMediterranean cuisine.Assa on mush,[clarification needed] spices,olive oil,chili red pepper,kodaid,wheat flour, lamb,garlic, fish and many other vegetables and spices are common. Tunisian cuisine offers what is known as a "solar kitchen" that relies heavily on olive oil, spices, tomatoes, fish species, and meat. Bread is an essential ingredient in Tunisian cuisine, as it accompanies almost all dishes and is usually used by dipping for broth.
Libyan cuisine derives much from the traditions ofMaghreb andMediterranean cuisines. One of the most popular Libyan dishes isbazin, anunleavened bread prepared withbarley, water and salt.[44]Bazin is prepared by boilingbarley flour in water and then beating it to create a dough using amagraf, which is a unique stick designed for this purpose.[45]Pork consumption is forbidden, in accordance withSharia, the religious laws ofIslam.[46]Tripoli is Libya's capital, and the cuisine is particularly influenced byItalian cuisine.[46] Pasta is common, and many seafood dishes are available.[46] Southern Libyan cuisine is more traditionally Arab andBerber. Common fruits and vegetables includefigs,dates,oranges,apricots andolives.[46]
Libyan cooking, like Tunisian, includes hot spices. Typical foods arebazin (Libyan bread),bsisa,couscous,harissa,hassaa,lebrak (filledgrape leaves with rice and minced meat), Libyanboureek, Libyan summer salad,marqa ortajine,madrouba, andmbatten.Mbekbka is a unique Libyan soup with pasta or spaghetti—rather than draining off the water, pasta is boiled together with the sauce. It can be made with any type of pasta, and the simplest dish involves frying onions in oil, throwing in the tomato puree, chili powder, turmeric, then adding water and salt and leaving to boil before adding the pasta. Another way involves adding lamb chops, chickpeas and garlic to the sauce before serving hot with a sprinkle of extra virgin olive oil, lemon, fresh chili and optional crusty bread. Other vegetables such as pumpkin, potato and green pepper can be added.[citation needed]Maglouba,shakshouka,sherba,usban,zumita andasida. Desserts and beverages includemakroudh,Libyan tea,ghoriba,maakroun,mafruka andmhalbiya.
Algerian cuisine is characterized by a wealth derived from land and sea production, aMediterranean-Maghreb cuisine. It offers a variety of dishes depending on the region and season, which gives a very varied plate. This cuisine is still based on vegetables and cereals that have always been produced in abundance in the country, which was formerly calledRoma bakery and thenBakery Europe.[citation needed] In addition, Algeria's rich history has contributed to the abundance of food from different periods and regions of the world. Among all the culinary specialties available inAlgeria, couscous remains the most famous, recognized as a national dish, as well as the traditional pastry called Oriental pastry in Western countries. Despite its historical transmission from generation to generation, there are many books devoted to Algerian cuisine. Algerian cuisine combines a variety of ingredients including vegetables, fruits, spices, meat, fish, seafood, vegetables anddried fruits. Vegetables are often used for salads, soups, casserole, couscous and sauces.Carrots,pumpkins,potatoes,green beans,beans,kale,eggplant, andtruffles are widely used.
![Couscous, a characteristic dish of the Maghreb, is made of steamed balls of crushed durum wheat semolina about 3 millimetres (0.12 in) across[47] traditionally served with stew spooned on top.](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMoroccan_cuscus%2c_from_Casablanca%2c_September_2018.jpg)
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