This article is about the city in Sri Lanka. For the administrative district enclosing it, seeAnuradhapura District. For the ancient kingdom it was capital of, seeAnuradhapura Kingdom.
WhileMahāvaṃsa places the founding of the city in 437BCE, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it a major human settlement on the island for almost three millennia and one of theoldest continuously occupied cities in Asia. It is the cradle of the Hydraulic Sinhalese civilisation, Theravada Buddhism, and the longest-servingancient capital of Sri Lanka that has survived for 1500 years. Moreover, it was the first capital of theSinhala Kingdom ofRajarata, following the kingdoms ofTambapanni andUpatissa Nuwara. Anuradhapura was also the centre of Theravada Buddhism for many centuries and has been a major Buddhist pilgrimage site with ruins of many ancient Buddhist temples, including the famousAnuradhapura Maha Viharaya and theJaya Sri Maha Bodhi, the oldest still-living, documented, planted tree in the world[1] believed to have originated from the originalBodhi tree atBodh Gaya (Bihar, India) under which theBuddha attained enlightenment. These vast networks of ancient temples and monasteries now cover over 100 square kilometers (40 sq mi) of area of the city today.
The city was mostly destroyed and largely deserted after 993CE, with theChola invasion from South India.[2] Although several attempts were made by later Sinhalese kings to return the capital to Anuradhapura, it was not reestablished as a major population centre of the island until theBritish colonial era in the 19th centuryCE. Despite its decline as a political centre, Anuradhapura remained a vital pilgrimage site for Buddhists throughout the medieval period and continues to be a significant spiritual destination today.[3][4] The modern revival of Anuradhapura began in the 1870s under British colonial rule, with infrastructure and urban planning initiatives aimed at supporting administration and accommodating pilgrims.[5] The contemporary city, much of which was moved during the mid-20th century to preserve the site of the ancient capital, is a major road junction of northern Sri Lanka and lies along a railway line. The city is the headquarters of Sri Lanka's archeological survey, and tourism is a significant factor in its economy.
The origin of the nameAnuradhapura is rooted in ancient Sri Lankan tradition and is documented in theMahāvaṃsa. According to this text:“Here and there did Vijaya’s ministers found villages. Anuradhagama was built by a man of that name near the Kadamba river.”[6] This refers to Anuradha, a minister in the court ofPrince Vijaya (543–505 BCE), who is credited with founding a settlement near the present-dayMalwathu Oya, then known as the Kadamba River. The nameAnuradhagama (fromAnuradha +gama, meaning "village") was thus given to this early settlement.
In 377 BCE, during the reign of KingPandukabhaya (474–367 BCE), this village was formally established as the capital of the Sinhalese kingdom. According to the Mahāvaṃsa:“He laid out the city Anuradhapura, and established it as the capital.”[7]
As the settlement expanded into an urban centre, its name changed to Anuradhapura—Anuradha +pura, withpura meaning “city” in Sinhala, Sanskrit, and Pali.
The antiquity of Anuradhapura is further supported by classical Western sources. In the 2nd century CE,Claudius Ptolemy, the Greco-Roman geographer, identified a place calledAnourogrammoi in hisGeographia, which scholars widely interpret as a reference to Anuradhagama/Anuradhapura: “Among the cities of Taprobane [Sri Lanka], there is Anourogrammoi…”[8] This external reference underscores the city's longstanding regional prominence and recognition in ancient global cartography.
Anuradhapura is the best representation of the beginnings of pre-modern urbanisation in Sri Lanka. The development of the initial settlement at the site of the city can be attributed to the second global cycle of historical evolution with the generalised diffusion of iron technology in the Old World through the first millenniumBCE, culminating in the emergence of many historical civilisations. The history of Anuradhapura then extends from its traditional founding in the recorded history in the fourth centuryBCE and its subsequent laying-out byDevanampiya Tissa (250–210BCE) to its abandonment by the last of the Anuradhapura kings at the end of the tenth centuryCE, its brief reoccupation in the eleventh century and the restoration of some of its major monuments, in the late 13th centuryCE byVijayabahu IV (1267–1270CE).[9]
Prehistoric and Early Settlement (before 4th century BCE)
Even though, historical chronicleMahāvaṃsa (5th centuryCE) place founding of the city in the 5th century BC, the archaeological data from the excavation of the citadel area of the old city puts the date of the human settlement as far back as the 10th century BC.[10] According to these excavations, protohistoric Iron Age of the city spans from 900 - 600BCE, with the appearance of iron technology, pottery, the horse, domestic cattle and paddy cultivation.[11][12] In the time period 700-600BCE, the settlement in Anuradhapura had grown over an area of at least 50 ha. Irrigable and fertile land surround the city, strategically situated with major ports northwest and northeast of the island. The city also benefited from dense jungle surroundings, providing a natural defense from invaders.
Excavation at Anuradhapura has unearthed Plain Grey Ware (in North India associated withPainted Gray Ware (PGW) pottery duringvedic period) from the 'Basal early historic' period of Anuradhapura (600-500 BCE) showing connections with North India.[13]
Anuradhapura as the Ancient Capital (4th century BCE – 11th century CE)
Details of city's development in the early historic period, spanning from 500 to 250BCE can be found in Sinhalese Chronicles. According to these records, King Pandukabhaya formally planned the city with gates and quarters for traders. The city at the time covered an area of one square kilometer, making it one of the largest cities in the entire Asian continent at the time. The city was largely deserted after the invasion by the Chola Tamil Hindu kingRajaraja I in 993CE and his sonRajendra I in 1014CE. According toCulavamsa (6th centuryCE-18th centuryCE), Anuradhapura was "utterly destroyed in every way by the Chola army. Still, the place was continuously inhabited after this event as indicated by records of visitors to the island such asRobert Knox and others.[14][15] Thus, the city was the longest-serving Sinhalese capital of Sri Lanka from the 5th century BCE (437BCE) until the 11th centuryCE (1017CE) flourishing for around 1,500 years.[16]
Medieval Period and Decline (11th – 16th centuries)
The city's prominence declined following invasions by South Indian dynasties, notably the Chola conquest in 993 CE. Although the political centre shifted to Polonnaruwa, Anuradhapura remained a vital religious site, continuing to attract Buddhist pilgrims.
Colonial Restoration and Archaeological Work (17th – early 20th centuries)
European interest in Anuradhapura resurged in the 17th century, with accounts from travelers like Robert Knox and John Davy documenting the ruins. In the late 19th century, British colonial authorities initiated archaeological surveys and restoration projects, recognising the site's historical and religious significance.
Modern Era and Heritage Conservation (20th century – present)
The area was sparsely inhabited for many centuries, but the local population remained aware of the ruins. InRobert Knox's 1681An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon, he wrote: "At this City of Anurodgburro is a Watch kept, beyond which are no more people that yield obedience to the King of Kandy".[14] In 1821,John Davy wrote that: "Anooradapoora, so long the capital of Ceylon, is now a small mean village, in the midst of a desert. A large tank, numerous stone pillars, two or three immense tumuli, (probably old dagobahs,) are its principal remains. It is still considered a sacred spot; and is a place of pilgrimage."[15]
Sacred City and Colonial-Era Urban Development (Late 19th – mid-20th centuries)
By the early 20th century, Anuradhapura was designated as an administrative centre for the North Central Province. With the opening of the Northern Railway line and Anuradhapura Railway Station in 1904, the town gained importance as a transport hub.
In 1949, the Government of Ceylon initiated theAnuradhapura Preservation Plan, developed by Oliver Weerasinghe. Its goal was to protect the ancient city by creating a separate planned township—“New Town”—to the east. Government offices, law courts, and administrative functions were relocated there. TheAnuradhapura Preservation Board was established to oversee this transition.
From 1958 to 1962,Nissanka Wijeyeratne served as Government Agent and Chairman of the Preservation Board. He played a pivotal role in overseeing the relocation and development efforts. During his tenure, he unveiled a memorial to H. R. Freeman, a former colonial administrator, and was instrumental in the establishment of theSacred City, theAnuradhapura Airport, and modern civic infrastructure.
Modern Era and Heritage Conservation (Mid-20th century – present)
In the mid-20th century, active measures were taken to protect Anuradhapura’s ancient sites. These included relocating much of the urban population and administrative infrastructure to the newly developed New Town. In 1982,Anuradhapura was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognising its archaeological and spiritual significance. Conservation efforts continue to maintain the integrity of religious monuments while managing tourism and pilgrimage activities.
Anuradhapura was a major intellectual centre for early Theravada Buddhism, home to revered Buddhist philosophers includingBuddhaghosa.[17]
During the reign of Dhatusena (455-473) a redaction of the Theravada Buddhist canon took place while at the same time 18 new vihara (temple complexes) were built and a statue erected for Mahinda, the Indian prince-monk who introduced Buddhism to the island.[18]
During the late Anuradhapura period, the royal family and nobility of Sri Lanka strongly supported Buddhism. As such, they frequently commissioned works of art and donated these items to Buddhist temples. In return, the temple and local Buddhist community supported the king's rule. Artworks featuring depictions ofAvalokitesvara, theBodhisattva of Mercy and Compassion, became increasingly popular.[19]
Anuradhapura became the centre of administration of theNorth Central Province and with the building of theNorthern Railway line, Anuradhapura became an important railway town with the opening of theAnuradhapura railway station in 1904. The Government of Ceylon taskedOliver Weerasinghe to develop the Anuradhapura Preservation Plan in 1949, aimed at establishing a newplanned town east of the existing Anuradhapura town, thereby establishing the Sacred city of Anuradhapura, with the aim of preserving the ancient city. The "New Town" had many of the government offices and law courts moved into it. The Anuradhapura Preservation Board was established with this aim.
Nissanka Wijeyeratne wasGovernment Agent ofAnuradhapura District from 1958 to 1962.He was arguably the best known of all government agents of his time. His stature ensured that the voice of Anuradhapura was heard at the highest levels in Colombo. Apart from being Government Agent, he was Chairman of the Anuradhapura Preservation Board. This was the time when the city of Anuradhapura was in a period of historic transition. The new town of Anuradhapura was being built, and the residents of the old were being transferred to the new town. It was a time of some tension and of excitement. He managed this process of change with courage and remarkable political skills. While in Anuradhapura, he unveiled a memorial forH. R. Freeman, a popular British Government Agent who later was elected by the people of the district to represent them in the1st State Council of Ceylon.[20] Coming events cast their shadows before. A striking feature of Wijeyeratne's Anuradhapura days was his great ability to see the bigger picture and focus on the key issues, and delegate responsibilities to his staff officers. He was never one to be enmeshed in detail. He also set up the Sacred City of Anuradhapura shifted the urban city to the newly created Anuradhapura town and is responsible for the establishment ofAnuradhapura Airport.[21][22]
Harischandra, B. W.:The Sacred City of Anuradhapura, Reprint. New Delhi, Asian Educational Services, 1998.
Nissanka, H.S.S.:Maha Bodhi Tree in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka: The Oldest Historical Tree in the World, New Delhi 1996, (Reprint. Vikas)
R. A. E. Coningham.:The Origins of the Brahmi Script Reconsidered: The New Evidence from Anuradhapura, Minerva 8(2): 27–31, 1995.
R. A. E. Coningham.:Anuradhapura Citadel Archaeological Project: Preliminary Results of a Season of Geophysical Survey. South Asian Studies 10: 179–188, 1994.
A. Seneviratne.:Ancient Anuradhapura The Monastic City, Archaeological Department of Sri Lanka. p. 310, 1994.
S. M. Burrows,The Buried Cities of Ceylon - A Guide Book to Anuradhapura and Polonaruwa Reprint, p. 120, 1999.
Philippe Fabry,the Essential guide for Anuradhapura and its region, Negombo, Viator Publications, 2005, 199 p., ISBN 955-8736-05-8
Senake Dias Bandaranayake,Sinhalese Monastic Architecture - The Vihâras of Anurâdhapura, E. J. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands, 1974
James G. Smither,Architectural Remains, Anuradhapura, Ceylon; Comprising the Dâgabas and Certain Other Ancient Ruined Structures, Ceylon Government Press, London, 1894
H. E. Weerasooria,Historical Guide to Anuradhapura’s Ruins, Asian Educational Services (AES), New Delhi, 1995
Ulrich von Schroeder,Buddhist Sculptures of Sri Lanka. X. Monuments of Anuradhapura: 553–619. (Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd., 1990). ISBN 962-7049-05-0 / ISBN 978-962-7049-05-0
Ulrich von Schroeder,The Golden Age of Sculpture in Sri Lanka – Masterpieces of Buddhist and Hindu Bronzes from Museums in Sri Lanka, [catalogue of the exhibition held at the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington, D. C., 1 November 1992 – 26 September 1993]. (Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd., 1992). ISBN 962-7049-06-9 / ISBN 978-962-7049-06-7
^abRobert Knox (1681),Historical Relation chapter 2, full quote "There are besides these already mentioned, several other ruinous places that do still retain the name of Cities, where Kings have Reigned, tho now little Foot steps remaining of them. At the North end of this Kings Dominions is one of these Ruinous Cities, called Anurodgburro, where they say Ninety Kings have Reigned, the Spirits of whom they hold now to be Saints in Glory, having merited it by making Pagoda’s and Stone Pillars and Images to the honour of their Gods, whereof there are many yet remaining: which the Chingulayes count very meritorious to worship, and the next way to Heaven. Near by is a River, by which we came when we made our escape: all along which is abundance of hewed stones, some long for Pillars, some broad for paving. Over this River there have been three Stone Bridges built upon Stone Pillars, but now are fallen down; and the Countrey all desolate without Inhabitants. At this City of Anurodgburro is a Watch kept, beyond which are no more people that yield obedience to the King of Candy. This place is above Ninety miles to the Northward of the City of Candy. In these Northern Parts there are no Hills, nor but two or three Springs of running water, so that their Corn ripeneth with the help of Rain."
^abJohn Davy (1821),An Account, full quote: "Anooradapoora, so long the capital of Ceylon, is now a small mean village, in the midst of a desert. A large tank, numerous stone pillars, two or three immense tumuli, (probably old dagobahs,) are its principal remains. It is still considered a sacred spot; and is a place of pilgrimage. This information was collected partly from the natives, and partly from an officer who visited it during the rebellion."
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