Anubis was depicted in black, a color that symbolized regeneration, life, the soil of theNile River, and the discoloration of the corpse after embalming. Anubis is associated withWepwawet, another Egyptian god portrayed with a dog's head or in canine form, but with grey or white fur. Historians assume that the two figures were eventually combined.[6] Anubis's female counterpart isAnput. His daughter is the serpent goddessKebechet.
Name
Anubis as a jackal perched atop a tomb, symbolizing his protection of the necropolis
"Anubis" is a Greek rendering of this god'sEgyptian name.[7][8] Before theGreeks arrived in Egypt, around the 7th century BC, the god was known asAnpu orInpu. The root of the name in ancient Egyptian language means "a royal child."Inpu has a root to "inp", which means "to decay." The god was also known as "First of the Westerners," "Lord of the Sacred Land," "He Who is Upon his Sacred Mountain," "Ruler of the Nine Bows," "The Dog who Swallows Millions," "Master of Secrets," "He Who is in the Place of Embalming," and "Foremost of the Divine Booth."[9] The positions that he had were also reflected in the titles he held such as "He Who Is upon His Mountain," "Lord of the Sacred Land," "Foremost of the Westerners," and "He Who Is in the Place of Embalming."[10]
A new form with the jackal on a tall stand appeared in the late Old Kingdom and became common thereafter:[14]
Anubis's namejnpw was possibly pronounced[aˈna.pʰa(w)], based on CopticAnoup and theAkkadian transcription⟨a-na-pa⟩ (𒀀𒈾𒉺) in the name <ri-a-na-pa> "Reanapa" that appears inAmarna letter EA 315.[15][16] However, this transcription may also be interpreted asrˁ-nfr, a name similar to that of PrinceRanefer of theFourth Dynasty.
History
In Egypt'sEarly Dynastic period (c. 3100 – c. 2686 BC), Anubis was portrayed in full animal form, with a "jackal" head and body.[17] A jackal god, probably Anubis, is depicted in stone inscriptions from the reigns ofHor-Aha,Djer, and other pharaohs of theFirst Dynasty.[18] SincePredynastic Egypt, when the dead were buried in shallow graves, jackals had been strongly associated with cemeteries because they were scavengers which uncovered human bodies and ate their flesh.[19] In the spirit of "fighting like with like," a jackal was chosen to protect the dead, because "a common problem (and cause of concern) must have been the digging up of bodies, shortly after burial, by jackals and other wild dogs which lived on the margins of the cultivation."[20]
In theOld Kingdom, Anubis was the most important god of the dead. He was replaced in that role by Osiris during theMiddle Kingdom (2000–1700 BC).[21] In theRoman era, which started in 30 BC, tomb paintings depict him holding the hand of deceased persons to guide them to Osiris.[22]
The parentage of Anubis varied between myths, times and sources. In early mythology, he was portrayed as a son ofRa.[23] In theCoffin Texts, which were written in theFirst Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BC), Anubis is the son of either the cow goddessHesat or the cat-headedBastet.[24] Another tradition depicted him as the son of Ra andNephthys.[23] More commonly, however, he is recognized as the offspring of Osiris and Isis. In later periods, particularly during the Ptolemaic era, Anubis was sometimes described as the son of Isis and Serapis, a Hellenized form of Osiris designed to appeal to Egypt's growing Greek population.[25] The GreekPlutarch (c. 40–120 AD) reported a tradition that Anubis was the illegitimate son of Nephthys and Osiris, but that he was adopted by Osiris's wifeIsis:[26]
For when Isis found out that Osiris loved her sister and had relations with her in mistaking her sister for herself, and when she saw a proof of it in the form of a garland of clover that he had left to Nephthys – she was looking for a baby, because Nephthys abandoned it at once after it had been born for fear ofSet; and when Isis found the baby helped by the dogs which with great difficulties lead her there, she raised him and he became her guard and ally by the name of Anubis.
George Hart sees this story as an "attempt to incorporate the independent deity Anubis into theOsirian pantheon."[24] An Egyptian papyrus from theRoman period (30–380 AD) simply called Anubis the "son of Isis."[24] InNubia, Anubis was seen as the husband of his mother Nephthys.[2]
In thePtolemaic period (350–30 BC), when Egypt became aHellenistic kingdom ruled by Greek pharaohs, Anubis was merged with theGreek godHermes, becomingHermanubis.[27][28] The two gods were considered similar because they bothguided souls to the afterlife.[29] The center of thiscult was inuten-ha/Sa-ka/Cynopolis, a place whose Greek name means "city of dogs." In Book XI ofThe Golden Ass byApuleius, there is evidence that the worship of this god was continued inRome through at least the 2nd century. Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in thealchemical andhermetical literature of theMiddle Ages and theRenaissance.
Although the Greeks andRomans typically scorned Egyptian animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (Anubis was mockingly called "Barker" by the Greeks), Anubis was sometimes associated withSirius in the heavens andCerberus and Hades in the underworld.[30] In his dialogues,Plato often hasSocrates utter oaths "by the dog" (Greek:kai me ton kuna), "by the dog of Egypt", and "by the dog, the god of the Egyptians", both for emphasis and to appeal to Anubis as an arbiter of truth in the underworld.[31]
Asjmy-wt (Imiut or theImiut fetish) "He who is in the place ofembalming", Anubis was associated withmummification. He was also calledḫnty zḥ-nṯr "He who presides over the god's booth", in which "booth" could refer either to the place where embalming was carried out or the pharaoh's burial chamber.[32][33]
In theOsiris myth, Anubis helped Isis to embalm Osiris.[21] Indeed, when the Osiris myth emerged, it was said that after Osiris had been killed by Set, Osiris's organs were given to Anubis as a gift. With this connection, Anubis became the patron god of embalmers; during the rites of mummification, illustrations from theBook of the Dead often show a wolf-mask-wearing priest supporting the upright mummy.
Anubis was a protector ofgraves andcemeteries. Several epithets attached to his name inEgyptian texts and inscriptions referred to that role.Khenty-Amentiu, which means "foremost of the westerners" and was also the name of a differentcanine funerary god, alluded to his protecting function because the dead were usually buried on the west bank of the Nile.[34] He took other names in connection with his funerary role, such astpy-ḏw.f (Tepy-djuef) "He who is upon his mountain" (i.e. keeping guard over tombs from above) andnb-t3-ḏsr (Neb-ta-djeser) "Lord of the sacred land", which designates him as a god of the desertnecropolis.[32][33]
TheJumilhac papyrus recounts another tale where Anubis protected the body of Osiris from Set. Set attempted to attack the body of Osiris by transforming himself into aleopard. Anubis stopped and subdued Set, however, and hebranded Set's skin with a hot iron rod. Anubis thenflayed Set and wore his skin as a warning against evil-doers who would desecrate thetombs of the dead.[35] Priests who attended to the dead wore leopard skin in order to commemorate Anubis's victory over Set. The legend of Anubis branding the hide of Set in leopard form was used to explain how the leopard got its spots.[36]
Most ancient tombs had prayers to Anubis carved on them.[37]
Guide of souls
The "weighing of the heart," from the book of the dead ofHunefer. Anubis is portrayed as guiding the deceased forward and manipulating the scales, under the scrutiny of theibis-headedThoth.
By thelate pharaonic era (664–332 BC), Anubis was often depicted as guiding individuals across the threshold from the world of the living to theafterlife.[38] Though a similar role was sometimes performed by the cow-headedHathor, Anubis was more commonly chosen to fulfill that function.[39] Greek writers from theRoman period of Egyptian history designated that role as that of "psychopomp", a Greek term meaning "guide of souls" that they used to refer to their own godHermes, who also played that role inGreek religion.[29]Funerary art from that period represents Anubis guiding either men or women dressed in Greek clothes into the presence of Osiris, who by then had long replaced Anubis as ruler of the underworld.[40]
Weigher of hearts
One of the roles of Anubis was as the "Guardian of the Scales."[41] The critical scene depicting the weighing of the heart, in theBook of the Dead, shows Anubis performing a measurement that determined whether the person was worthy of entering the realm of the dead (theunderworld, known asDuat). By weighing the heart of a deceased person againstma'at, who was often represented as an ostrich feather, Anubis dictated the fate of souls. Souls heavier than a feather would be devoured byAmmit, and souls lighter than a feather would ascend to a heavenly existence.[42][43]
Portrayal in art
Anubis was one of the most frequently represented deities inancient Egyptian art.[5] He is depicted in royal tombs as early as theFirst Dynasty.[9] The god is typically treating a king's corpse, providing sovereign to mummification rituals and funerals, or standing with fellow gods at theWeighing of the Heart of the Soul in the Hall of Two Truths.[10] One of his most popular representations is of him, with the body of a man and the head of a jackal with pointed ears, standing or kneeling, holding a gold scale while a heart of the soul is being weighed against Ma'at's white truth feather.[9]
Anubis in a fully humanoid form, Ramesses II temple,Abydos, Egypt.
In theearly dynastic period, he was depicted in animal form, as a black canine.[44] Anubis's distinctive black color did not represent the animal, rather it had several symbolic meanings.[45] It represented "the discolouration of the corpse after its treatment withnatron and the smearing of the wrappings with a resinous substance during mummification."[45] Being the color of the fertilesilt of theRiver Nile, to Egyptians, black also symbolized fertility and the possibility of rebirth in the afterlife.[46] In theMiddle Kingdom, Anubis was often portrayed as a man with the head of a jackal.[47] TheAfrican jackal was the species depicted and the template of numerous Ancient Egyptian deities, including Anubis.[48] An extremely rare depiction of him infully human form was found in a chapel ofRamesses II inAbydos.[45][8]
Anubis is often depicted wearing a ribbon and holding anḫ3ḫ3 "flail" in the crook of his arm.[47] Another of Anubis's attributes was thejmy-wt orimiut fetish, named for his role in embalming.[49] In funerary contexts, Anubis is shown either attending to a deceased person's mummy or sitting atop a tomb protecting it.New Kingdom tomb-seals also depict Anubis sitting atop thenine bows that symbolize his domination over the enemies of Egypt.[50]
Statue of Anubis
Wall relief of Anubis in (KV17) the tomb of Seti I, 19th Dynasty, Valley of the Kings
Isis, left, andNephthys stand by as Anubis embalms the deceased, 13th century BC
Anubis receiving offerings,hieroglyph name in third column from left, 14th century BC; painted limestone; fromSaqqara (Egypt)
Jackal head of Anubis in (KV35) the tomb of Amenophis II, Valley of the Kings
The king with Anubis, from thetomb of Horemheb; 1323-1295 BC; tempera on paper; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Anubis amulet; 664–30 BC; faience; height: 4.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Recumbent Anubis; 664–30 BC; limestone, originally painted black; height: 38.1 cm, length: 64 cm, width: 16.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Statuette of Anubis; 332–30 BC; plastered and painted wood; 42.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Hermanubis in the November panel of a Roman mosaic calendar from Sousse, Tunisia
Worship
Although he does not appear in many myths, he was extremely popular with Egyptians and those of other cultures.[9] TheGreeks linked him to their god Hermes, the god who guided the dead to the afterlife. The pairing was later known asHermanubis. Anubis was heavily worshipped because, despite modern beliefs, he gave the people hope. People marveled in the guarantee that their body would be respected at death, their soul would be protected and justly judged.[9]
Anubis had male priests who sported wood masks with the god's likeness when performing rituals.[9][10] His cult center was atCynopolis inUpper Egypt but memorials were built everywhere and he was universally revered in every part of the nation.[9]
See also
Abatur, Mandaeanuthra who weighs the souls of the dead to determine their fates
^Thecanid which Anubis was modeled upon has frequently been stated to have been thegolden jackal, though the African variant of this animal present in Egypt was reclassified in 2015 as a separate species now known as theAfrican wolf, which was found to be more closely related towolves andcoyotes than to the jackal.[11] Some authors have opined that Anubis is more probably modeled after afox[12] orEthiopian wolf.[13] Nevertheless, ancient Greek texts about Anubis consistently refer to the deity as having the head of a dog rather than that of any wild canid, and there is still uncertainty as to what species represents Anubis. Therefore the Name and History section uses the names the original sources used but in quotation marks.
Citations
^Doxey, Denise (2001).Anubis. In: In D. Redford, ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Vol. I.Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.98.
^abc"Anubis".Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2018.Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved3 December 2018.
^Koepfli, Klaus-Peter; Pollinger, John; Godinho, Raquel; Robinson, Jacqueline; Lea, Amanda; Hendricks, Sarah; Schweizer, Rena M.; Thalmann, Olaf; Silva, Pedro; Fan, Zhenxin; Yurchenko, Andrey A.; Dobrynin, Pavel; Makunin, Alexey; Cahill, James A.; Shapiro, Beth; Álvares, Francisco; Brito, José C.; Geffen, Eli; Leonard, Jennifer A.; Helgen, Kristofer M.; Johnson, Warren E.; o'Brien, Stephen J.; Van Valkenburgh, Blaire; Wayne, Robert K. (2015)."Genome-wide Evidence Reveals that African and Eurasian Golden Jackals Are Distinct Species".Current Biology.25 (#16):2158–65.Bibcode:2015CBio...25.2158K.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.060.PMID26234211.
^Osborn, D.; Helmy, I. (1980)."Canis aureus lupaster (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1833)".The contemporary land mammals of Egypt (including Sinai). Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History. p. 367.We are inclined to believe that Anubis was a fox rather than a jackal, because all of the statuary and heiroglyphs of Anubis are of an animal with the tail of a fox.
^Wilfong, Terry G. (2015),Death Dogs: The Jackal Gods of Ancient Egypt. Kelsey Museum Publication 11. Ann Arbor: Kelsey Museum of Archaeology. pp.50-51.
^Kinsley 1989, p. 178;Riggs 2005, p. 166 ("The motif of Anubis, or less frequently Hathor, leading the deceased to the afterlife was well-established in Egyptian art and thought by the end of the pharaonic era.").
Duquesne, Terence (2005).The Jackal Divinities of Egypt I. Darengo Publications.ISBN978-1-871266-24-5.
El-Sadeek, Wafaa; Abdel Razek, Sabah (2007).Anubis, Upwawet, and Other Deities: Personal Worship and Official Religion in Ancient Egypt. American University in Cairo Press.ISBN978-977-437-231-5.
Grenier, J.-C. (1977).Anubis alexandrin et romain (in French). E. J. Brill.ISBN978-90-04-04917-8.
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![Statue of Hermanubis, c. 100–138 AD, from Rome[51]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAnubis%2c_Anzio%2c_Villa_Pamphili%2c_1st-2nd_century_AD%2c_Pario_marble_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Egizio_-_Vatican_Museums_-_DSC00818.jpg)
