Ananti-pornography movement in the United States has existed since before the 1969Supreme Court decision ofStanley v. Georgia, which held that people could view whatever they wished in the privacy of their own homes, by establishing an implied "right to privacy" inU.S. law.[1] This led PresidentLyndon B. Johnson, with the backing ofCongress, to appoint a commission to studypornography. Theanti-pornography movement seeks to maintain or restore restrictions and to increase or create restrictions on the production, sale or distribution of pornography.
In 1970, the President's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography concluded that"there was insufficient evidence that exposure to explicit sexual materials played a significant role in the causation of delinquent or criminal behavior." In general, with regard to adults, the Commission recommended that legislation "should not seek to interfere with the right of adults who wish to do so to read, obtain, or view explicit sexual materials." Regarding the view that these materials should be restricted for adults in order to protect young people from exposure to them, the Commission found that it is "inappropriate to adjust the level of adult communication to that considered suitable for children." The Supreme Court supported this view.[2]
A large portion of the Commission's budget was applied to funding original research on the effects of sexually explicit materials. One experiment is described in which repeated exposure of male college students to pornography "caused decreased interest in it, less response to it and no lasting effect," although it appears that the satiation effect does wear off eventually ("Once more"). William B. Lockhart, Dean of theUniversity of Minnesota Law School and chairman of the commission, said that before his work with the commission he had favored control of obscenity for both children and adults, but had changed his mind as a result of scientific studies done by commission researchers. In reference to dissenting commission members Keating and Rev.Morton A. Hill, Lockhart said, "When these men have been forgotten, the research developed by the commission will provide a factual basis for informed, intelligent policymaking by the legislators of tomorrow".[3]
Commission member Father Hill, the founder ofMorality in Media, helped to author a minority report that disagreed with the findings of the Commission. Believing that the Commission was stacked towardsFirst Amendmentfree speech advocates, Father Hill and another clergyman on the Commission, Dr. Winfrey C. Link, issued the Hill-Link Minority Report rebutting the conclusions of the majority report. Issued in 1970, the majority report was rejected by both PresidentRichard Nixon and theUnited States Congress. The Hill-Link Report, which recommended maintaining anti-obscenity statutes, was read into the record of both theSenate and theHouse of Representatives. It was cited by theBurger Court in its 1973 obscenity decisions, includingMiller v. California.[4]
PresidentRonald Reagan announced his intention to set up a commission to study pornography.[5] The result was the appointment by Attorney GeneralEdwin Meese in the spring of 1985 of a panel of 11 members, the majority of whom had established records as anti-pornography crusaders.[6]
In 1986, theAttorney General's Commission on Pornography, often called the Meese Commission, reached the opposite conclusion, advising that pornography was in varying degrees harmful. A workshop headed by Surgeon GeneralC. Everett Koop provided essentially the only original research done by the Meese Commission. Given very little time and money to "develop something of substance" to include in the Meese Commission's report, it was decided to conduct a closed, weekend workshop of "recognized authorities" in the field. All but one of the invited participants attended. At the end of the workshop, the participants expressed consensus in five areas:
According to Surgeon General Koop, "Although the evidence may be slim, we nevertheless know enough to conclude that pornography does present a clear and present danger to American public health".[7]
In the 1980s, a grassroots effort began to mount opposition to pornography.New Right conservatives considered pornographyindecent, and detrimental to thetraditional family.[8]
In 1983, prosecutors inCalifornia tried to usepandering andprostitution state statutes against a producer of and actors in a pornographic movie; theCalifornia Supreme Court ruled in 1988 that these statutes do not apply to the production of non-obscene pornography.[9] It has been suggested that this decision was one of the contributing factors that led to the popularity of California with adult filmmakers.[10]
In a line of cases beginning withRoth v. United States,354 U.S.476 (1957), the United States Supreme Court has repeatedly held that distribution of obscenity is not protected by theFirst Amendment or by any other provisions of theU.S. Constitution. The court inStanley v. Georgia,394 U.S.557 (1969) however, later clarified that possession of obscenity is protected on the grounds of both the First andFourteenth Amendments.
In explaining its position, inMiller v. California,413 U.S.15 (1973) the U.S. Supreme Court found that:
and inParis Adult Theatre I v. Slaton,413 U.S.49 (1973) that:
The Supreme Court defined obscenity inMiller v. California with theMiller test.
The Supreme Court on May 19, 2008 upheld a 2003 federal law, the Prosecutorial Remedies and other Tools to end the Exploitation of Children Today Act, theProtect Act, aimed at child pornography, in a 7-to-2 ruling penned by JusticeAntonin Scalia inUnited States v. Williams. It dismissed the United States Court of Appeals for the 11th Circuit's finding the law unconstitutionally vague. Michael Williams ofFlorida was caught in a 2004 federal undercover operation and found guilty later of "pandering" child pornography, since he offered to sell nude pictures of his young daughter and other forms of child pornography in an Internet chat room.[11][12][13]
The so-called "Sex Wars" of the late 1970s[14] challenged the traditional understanding of the gender role.Andrea Dworkin andCatharine MacKinnon became well-known often-cited anti-pornography authors. Many debates have attended their political intervention into the law by way of their advocacy of anti-pornography ordinances in severalmidwestern cities. Other notable American anti-pornography activists to belong to this camp areRobin Morgan andSusan Griffin.Libertarians, who separate sex and violence, take MacKinnon and Dworkin to task for their refusal to leave sexual expression alone.[15] This was done particularly byGillian Rodgerson andElizabeth Wilson inPornography and Feminism: The Case Against Censorship: "Yet this theoretical cocktail of biologism andbehaviorism is lethal. To see men as naturally programmed for violence is to endorse the most conservative views on human nature, and to see it as unchanging and unchangeable". Rodgerson and Wilson argue that pornography plays a relatively minor role in the wider regime ofsexist practices pervading women's lives.[16]
Another matter, which frequently circulates in American anti-pornography movement is a close bond of pornography with rape. According to a 2006 paper,Porn Up, Rape Down, byNorthwestern University Law Professor Anthony D'Amato, "the incidence of rape in the United States has declined 85 per cent in the past 25 years while access to pornography has become freely available to teenagers and adults". Recognizing that the Nixon and Reagan Commissions tried to show that exposure to pornographic materials produced social violence, D'amato concludes that "the reverse may be true: that pornography has reduced social violence". D'amato suggests there are two predominant reasons why an increase in the availability of pornography has led to a reduction in rape. First, using pornographic material provides an easy avenue for the sexually desirous to "get it out of their system". Second, D'amato points to the so-called "Victorian effect". It dates back to the BritishVictorian era when people covered up their bodies with an immense amount of clothing, generating a greater mystery as to what they looked like naked. D'amato suggests that the free availability of pornography since the 1970s, and the recent bombardment of internet pornography, has de-mystified sex, thus satisfying the sexually curious.[17]
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