Anti-communist mass killings are thepolitically motivatedmass killings ofcommunists, alleged communists, or their alleged supporters which were committed byanti-communists and political organizations or governments which opposed communism. Thecommunist movement has faced opposition since it was founded and the opposition to it has often been organized and violent.

Many anti-communist mass killing campaigns waged during theCold War were supported and backed by theUnited States and itsWestern Bloc allies.^{[1][2][3][4][5]} Some U.S.-supported mass killings, including theIndonesian mass killings of 1965–66 and thekillings by the Guatemalan military during theGuatemalan Civil War, are considered acts ofgenocide.^[3][6][7][4]

InNazi Germany and the countries occupied by it duringWorld War II, anti-communism was one of the motivations forthe Holocaust, the extermination of the Jews, who were perceived as creators of the "Jewish Bolshevism";^[8] during therevolutions afterWorld War I, the "Jewish Bolshevism" conspiracy theory justified the antisemitic violence carried out by anti-communist counter-revolutionary troopsin the former Russian Empire^[9] andHungary.^[10]

White Terror is a term that was coined during theFrench Revolution in 1795 in order to denote all forms of counter-revolutionary violence, referring to the solid white flag of theloyalists to the French throne.^[11] Since then, historians and individual groups have both used the termWhite Terror in order to refer to coordinated counter-revolutionary violence in a broader sense. In the course of history, many White Terror groups have persecuted, attacked, and killed communists, alleged communists and communist-sympathizers as part of their counter-revolutionary and anti-communist agendas. HistorianChristian Gerlach wrote that "when both sides engaged in terror, the 'red' terror usually paled in comparison with the 'white'", and cited the crushing of theParis Commune, the terrors of theSpanish Civil War, and theIndonesian mass killings of 1965–66 as examples.^[12]

Latin America was ravaged by many bloodycivil wars and mass killings during the 20th century. Most of these conflicts were politically motivated, or they revolved around political issues, and anti-communist mass killings were committed during several of them.

From 1976 to 1983, the military dictatorship of Argentina, theNational Reorganization Process underJorge Rafael Videla, organized the arrest and execution of between 9,000 and 30,000 civilians suspected of communism or other leftist sympathies during a period ofstate terror. Children of the victims were sometimes given a new identity and forcibly adopted by childless military families.^[13][14] Held to account in the 2000s, the perpetrators of the killings argued that their actions were a necessary part of a "war" against Communism.^[15] This campaign was part of a broader anti-communist operation calledOperation Condor, which involved the repression and assassination of thousands of left-wing dissidents and alleged communists by the coordinated intelligence services of theSouthern Cone countries of Latin America, which was led byPinochet's Chile and supported by the United States.^{[2][1][3][5]: 87}

In 1932, aCommunist Party-led insurrection against theSalvadoran military dictatorship ofMaximiliano Hernández Martínez was brutally suppressed by theSalvadoran Armed Forces, resulting inthe deaths of 30,000 peasants.^[16]

TheSalvadoran Civil War (1979–1992) was a conflict between themilitary-led government ofEl Salvador and a coalition of five left-wing guerrilla organizations that was known collectively as theFarabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN). Acoup on 15 October 1979 led to the killings of anti-coup protesters by the government as well as anti-disorder protesters by the guerrillas and it is widely seen as the tipping point toward civil war.^[17]

By January 1980, the left-wing political organizations united to form the Coordinated Revolutionaries of the Masses (CRM). A few months later, the left-wing armed groups united to form the Unified Revolutionary Directorate (DRU). It was renamed the FMLN following its merger with theCommunist Party in October 1980.^[18]

The full-fledged civil war lasted for more than 12 years and saw extreme violence from both sides. It also included the deliberate terrorizing and targeting of civilians bydeath squads, the recruitment ofchild soldiers and other violations ofhuman rights, mostly by the military.^[19] An unknown number of people "disappeared" during the conflict and theUnited Nations reports that more than 75,000 were killed.^[20] The United States contributed to the conflict by providing large amounts of military aid to the government of El Salvador during theCarter^[21] andReagan administrations.

Massacres, forced disappearances, torture and summary executions of guerrillas and especially civilian collaborators of the communist^[22]Guerrilla Army of the Poor at the hands of United States-backedArmed Forces of Guatemala had been widespread since 1965. It was a longstanding policy of the military regime and known by United States officials.^[23] A report from 1984 discussed "the murder of thousands by a military government that maintains its authority by terror".^[24]Human Rights Watch described extraordinarily cruel actions by the armed forces, mostly against unarmed civilians.^[25]

The repression reached genocidal levels in the predominantly indigenous northern provinces where guerrillas of theGuerrilla Army of the Poor operated. There, the Guatemalan military viewed theMaya peoples, traditionally seen as subhumans, as being supportive of the guerrillas and began a campaign of wholesale killings and disappearances of Mayan peasants. While massacres of Indigenous peasants had occurred earlier in the war, the systematic use of terror against the Indigenous population began around 1975 and peaked during the first half of the 1980s. An estimated 200,000 Guatemalans were killed during theGuatemalan Civil War, including at least 40,000 persons who "disappeared". Of the 42,275 individual cases of killing and "disappearances" documented by the CEH, 93% were killed by government forces. 83% of the victims were Maya and 17%Ladino.^[26]

The political and ideological struggles inAsia during the 20th century frequently involved communist movements. Anti-communist mass killings were committed on a large scale in Asia.

TheShanghai massacre of April 12, 1927 was a violent suppression ofChinese Communist Party (CCP) organizations inShanghai by the military forces ofChiang Kai-shek's conservative faction in theKuomintang (KMT). Following the incident, the latter carried out a full-scale purge of communists in all areas under their control and even more violent suppressions occurred in cities such asGuangzhou andChangsha.^[27] The purge led to an open split between the left- and right-wings of the KMT, with Chiang Kai-shek establishing himself as the leader of the right-wing atNanjing in opposition to theoriginal left-wing KMT government led byWang Jingwei inWuhan.

Before dawn on April 12, gang members began to attack district offices controlled by the union workers, includingZhabei,Nanshi andPudong. Under an emergency decree, Chiang ordered the 26th Army to disarm the workers' militias, which resulted in more than 300 people being killed and wounded. The union workers organized amass meeting to denounce Chiang on April 13 and thousands of workers and students went to the headquarters of the 2nd Division of the 26th Army to protest. Soldiers opened fire, killing 100 and wounding many more. Chiang dissolved the provisional government of Shanghai, labor unions and all other organizations under Communist control and he reorganized a network of unions with allegiance to the Kuomintang under the control ofDu Yuesheng. Over 1,000 communists were arrested, some 300 were executed and more than 5,000 went missing. Western news reports later nicknamed General Bai "The Hewer of Communist Heads".^[28]

SomeNational Revolutionary Army commanders with communist backgrounds who were graduates of theWhampoa Military Academy kept their sympathies hidden and were not arrested and many of them switched their allegiance to the communists after the start of theChinese Civil War.^[29]

The twin rival KMT governments, known as theNanjing–Wuhan split (Chinese: 宁汉分裂), did not last long because theWuhan Kuomintang also began to violently purge communists as well after its leader Wang found out aboutJoseph Stalin's secret order toMikhail Borodin that the CCP's efforts were to be organized so it could overthrow the left-wing KMT and take over the Wuhan government. More than 10,000 communists inCanton,Xiamen,Fuzhou,Ningbo,Nanjing,Hangzhou andChangsha were arrested and executed within 20 days. The Soviet Union officially terminated its cooperation with the KMT. Wang, fearing retribution as a communist sympathizer, fled toEurope. The Wuhan Nationalist government soon disintegrated, leaving Chiang as the sole legitimate leader of the Kuomintang. In a year, over 300,000 people were killed across mainland China in the suppression campaigns carried out by the KMT.^[30]

During the Shanghai Massacre, the Kuomintang also specifically targeted women with short hair whom had not been subjected tofoot binding, presuming such "non-traditional" women to be radicals.^[31] Kuomintang forces cut off their breasts, shaved their heads, and displayed their mutilated corpses in an effort to intimidate the local populace.^[31]

During the civil war between theKuomintang and the communists, both factions committed mass violence against civilian populations and even against their own armies, with the aim of obtaining hegemony overMainland China. During the civil war, the Kuomintang anti-communist faction killed 1,131,000 soldiers before entering combat during its conscription campaigns. In addition, the Kuomintang faction massacred 1 million civilians during the civil war.^[32] Most of these civilian victims were peasants.^[31]

By broadcasting false accusations of communism against theRevolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor leaders and sowing discord in theTimorese Democratic Union coalition, the Indonesian government fostered instability in East Timor and according to observers created a pretext for invading it.^[33] During theIndonesian invasion of East Timor and thesubsequent occupation of it, theIndonesian National Armed Forces killed and starved around 150,000 (1975–1999)^[34][35][36] citizens of East Timor or about a fifth of its population.Oxford University held an academic consensus which called the occupation theEast Timor genocide andYale University teaches it as part of itsgenocide studies program.^[37][38]

In the Indian state ofWest Bengal, a center of communist movements in the country, incidents of anti-Communist violence followed theNaxalbari uprising. From 1971 to 1977, theIndian National Congress (R)-led state government was notorious for conducting state-sponsoredextrajudicial killings andpolice brutality against communists from parties likeCPI(M),CPI(ML) and theirpro-Chinese allies due to theIndo-Chinese border dispute whereas the pro-SovietCPI was spared, owing towarm relations (see1964 split in CPI).^[39] CPI(M) leaderPromode Dasgupta described the anti-communist purge conducted by the government ofSiddhartha Shankar Ray toThe New York Times as follows^[40]

Almost all theleft parties have now been disintegrated. By killing, by destroying, by creating terror, the police and thegoondas (hired by the Congress (R) partymen) have driven out our people. Opposition meetings and demonstrations are rarely allowed. People are in hiding. In the name of the Naxalites, the opposition is being torn apart.

In one notable incident, between 12 and 13 August 1971, around 120-130Naxalite activists were killed overnight atBaranagar by Congress(R) members, allegedly with police support, and the bodies were dumped into the nearbyHooghly river.^[41][42]

A violent anti-communist purge and massacre took place shortly afteran abortive coup in the capital ofIndonesia,Jakarta, which was blamed on theCommunist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Most estimates of the number of people who were killed by the Indonesian security forces range from 500,000 to 1,000,000.^[43][7]: 3 The bloody purge constitutes one of the worst, yet least known, mass murders since the Second World War.^[44] The killings started in October 1965 in Jakarta, spread to Central and EasternJava and later toBali and smaller outbreaks occurred on parts of other islands,^[45] most notablySumatra. As theSukarno presidency began to unravel andSuhartobegan to assert control following the30 September Movement coup attempt, the PKI's upper national leaders were hunted down and arrested and some of them were summarily executed and theIndonesian Air Force in particular was a target of the purge. The party chairmanDipa Nusantara Aidit had flown toCentral Java in early October, where the coup attempt had been supported by leftist officers inYogyakarta,Salatiga andSemarang.^[46] Fellow senior party leaderNjoto was shot around November 6, Aidit on 22 November and First Deputy PKI ChairmanM. H. Lukman was killed shortly after.^[47]

As part of the broader anti-communist mass killings, the Suharto regime massacred Chinese-Indonesians on the presumption that they were necessarily part of a disloyal Communist "fifth column."^[48]

In 2016, an international tribunal inThe Hague ruled that the killings constitutecrimes against humanity and it also ruled that the United States and other Western governments were complicit in the crimes.^[49] Declassified documents published in 2017 confirm that not only did the United States government have detailed knowledge of the massacres as they happened, it was also deeply involved in the campaign of mass killings.^[50] Historian John Roosa contends the documents show "the U.S. was part and parcel of the operation, strategizing with the Indonesian army and encouraging them to go after the PKI."^[51] According toUniversity of Connecticut historian Bradley R. Simpson, the documents "contain damning details that the US was willfully and gleefully pushing for the mass murder of innocent people".^[44] UCLA historian Geoffrey B. Robinson argues that without the backing of the US and other powerful Western states, the Indonesian Army's program of mass killings would not have occurred.^{[7]: 22, 177}Vincent Bevins writes that other right-wing military regimes around the world engaged in their own anti-communist extermination campaigns sought to emulate the mass killing program carried out by the Indonesian military, given the success and prestige it enjoyed among Western powers, and found evidence that indirectly linked the metaphor "Jakarta" to eleven countries.^[4]

During theKorean War, tens of thousands of suspected communists and communist sympathizers were killed in what came to be known as theBodo League massacre (1950). Estimates of the death toll vary. According to professor Kim Dong-Choon, a commissioner of theTruth and Reconciliation Commission, at least 100,000 people were executed on suspicion of supporting communism,^[52] a figure which he called "very conservative."^[53][54] The overwhelming majority–82%–of the Korean War-era massacres that the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was petitioned to investigate were perpetrated by theRepublic of Korea Armed Forces, with just 18% of the massacres being perpetrated by theKorean People's Army.^[55]

Thousands of people, labeled as communist sympathizers and spies, were killed by the government ofChiang Kai-shek during theWhite Terror (Chinese:白色恐怖;pinyin:báisè kǒngbù) inTaiwan, a violent suppression of political dissidents following the28 February Incident in 1947.^[56] Protests erupted on 27 February following an altercation between a group of Tobacco Monopoly Bureau agents and a Taipei resident, with protestors calling for democratic reforms and an end to corruption. The Kuomintang regime responded by using violence to suppress the popular uprising. Over the next several days, the government-led crackdown killed several thousand people, with estimates generally setting the death toll somewhere between 10,000 and 30,000 or even more.^[57][58] From 1947 to 1987, around 140,000 Taiwanese were imprisoned, about 3,000 to 4,000 of whom were executed for their alleged opposition to the Kuomintang regime.^[59]

The Thai military government and itsCommunist Suppression Operations Command (CSOC), helped by theRoyal Thai Army, theRoyal Thai Police and paramilitaryvigilantes, reacted with drastic measures to theinsurgency of theCommunist Party of Thailand during the 1960s and 1970s. The anti-communist operations peaked between 1971 and 1973 during the rule of Field MarshalThanom Kittikachorn and GeneralPraphas Charusathien. According to official figures, 3,008 suspected communists were killed throughout the country.^[60] Alternative estimates are much higher. These civilians were usuallykilled without any judicial proceedings.^{[citation needed]}

A prominent example was the so-called"Red Drum" or "Red Barrel" killings of Lam Sai,Phatthalung Province, Southern Thailand, where more than 200 civilians^[60] (informal accounts speak of up to 3,000)^[61][62] who were accused of helping the communists were burned in red 200-litre oildrums, sometimes after having been killed to dispose of their bodies and sometimesburned alive.^[62] The incident was never thoroughly investigated and none of the perpetrators was brought to justice.^[63]

After three years of civilian rule following theOctober 1973 popular uprising, at least 46 leftist students and activists who had gathered on and around Bangkok'sThammasat University campus were massacred by police and right-wing paramilitaries on 6 October 1976. They had been accused of supporting communism. The mass killing followed a campaign of violently anti-communist propaganda by right-wing politicians, media and clerics, exemplified by the Buddhist monk Phra Kittiwuttho's claim that killing communists was not sinful.^[64][65]

Benjamin Valentino estimates 110,000–310,000 deaths as a "possible case" of "counter-guerrilla mass killings" by theUnited States Armed Forces andSouth Vietnam during theVietnam War (1955–1975).^[66]

The communist movement has faced opposition since it was founded inEurope in the late 19th century. The opposition to it has sometimes been violent and during the 20th century, anti-communist mass killings were committed on a large scale.

In 1920s, the government of theKingdom of Bulgaria used the failed assassination ofTsar Boris III as a pretext to open mass hunting for leftists, bothCommunists and members of theAgrarian Union that continued to support the deposed Prime MinisterAleksandar Stamboliyski after the1923 Bulgarian coup d'état.^{[citation needed]}

At least 22,000Communist Party of Estonia members, alleged communists, Soviet prisoners-of-war andEstonian Jews were massacred as part ofThe Holocaust in Estonia (1941–1944). As well as Jews, these killings were targeted at communists by theNazis and theirEstonian collaborators, justified by the Nazi conspiracy theory of "Judeo-Bolshevism" and the anti-Soviet sentiments of Estonian nationalists. Modern Estonia has been accused of glorifying these crimes by centre-left European politicians in recent years.^[67]

10,000 leftists were executed by the victoriousWhite Guard forces during the White Terror of theFinnish Civil War in 1918.^[68]

German communists,socialists andtrade unionists were among the earliest domestic opponents ofNazism^[69] and they were also among the first to be sent toconcentration camps.Adolf Hitler claimed that communism was a Jewish ideology which theNazi Party called "Judeo-Bolshevism". DuringWorld War II, the myth of "Judeo-Bolshevism" would become one of the ideological foundations ofthe Holocaust supported both by theNazi Party and theWehrmacht.^[8]

Fear of communist agitation was used to justify theEnabling Act of 1933, the law which gave Hitlerplenary powers.Hermann Göring later testified at theNuremberg Trials that the Nazis' willingness to repress German communists prompted PresidentPaul von Hindenburg and the German elite to cooperate with the Nazis. The first concentration camp was built atDachau in March 1933 and its original purpose was to imprison German communists, socialists, trade unionists and others who opposed the Nazis.^[70] Communists,social democrats and otherpolitical prisoners were forced to wearred triangles.

In 1936, Germany concluded the internationalAnti-Comintern Pact with theEmpire of Japan in order to fight against theComintern. After theGerman assault on communist Russia in 1941, theAnti-Comintern Pact was renewed, with many new signatories who were from theoccupied states across Europe and it was also signed by the governments ofTurkey and El Salvador. Thousands of communists inGerman-occupied territory were arrested and subsequently sent to Germanconcentration camps. Whenever the Nazis conquered a new piece of territory, members of communist, socialist andanarchist groups were normally the first persons to be immediately detained or executed. On theEastern Front, this practice was in keeping with Hitler'sCommissar Order in which he ordered thesummary execution of all politicalcommissars who were captured among Soviet soldiers as well as the execution of allCommunist Party members in German held territory.^[71] TheEinsatzgruppen carried out these executions in the east.

Among the motivations for the Holocaust was the belief shared both by the Nazis and by the army that Jews were responsible for Communism ("Bolshevism"), which they perceived as a threat to the "Western Civilization". While the myth of "Jewish Bolshevism" was one of the cornerstones of the Nazi racial doctrines, it was also widespread in the army, as many commanders and soldiers shared anti-Communism of the Nazis and supported the idea of extermination of anything "Bolshevist", including the Jewry as its alleged racial root; this understanding originated in the interwar period, during which the right-wing propaganda spread antisemitism by blaming the Jews for the defeat of Germany inWorld War I, what became known as the "Stab-in-the-back myth", for national humiliation after the war brought upon Germany by a left-wing Jewish conspiracy against the "undefeated" army, and for theRevolution of 1918 which ended theGerman Empire, and for the socialist and communist upheavals in post-war Germany. The identification of "Bolshevism" with the Jewry became generally accepted in Nazi Germany, and during World War II, the extermination of the Jews as a war against communism and Nazi mass killings were justified even by the army commanders who did not share the ideology of Nazism. More to it, the Jewry was identified with the anti-Fascist partisan movements in the occupied territories, and the extermination of the Jews was justified as measures ofcounterinsurgency and self-defense against an armed enemy: the Nazis believed that the Jews necessarily needed to be partisans, since they were the racial root of the partisan movement, what made the Jews perceived as a necessarily armed enemy, since the Jews had to be partisans. On these grounds, for example, in the German-occupied Serbia, theWehrmacht systematically executed male Jews as partisans.^[8]

The disarmament of thecommunist-dominatedEAM-ELAS resistance movement in the aftermath of theTreaty of Varkiza (February 1945) was followed by period of political and legal repression of leftists by theKingdom of Greece.^[72] The government's stance facilitated the creation of a total of 230 right wing paramilitary bands, which numbered 10,000 to 18,000 members in July 1945. The right wing death squads engaged in the organized persecution of Greek leftists, which came to be known as theWhite Terror.^[73] In the period between the Treaty of Varkiza and the 1946 election, right-wing terror squads committed 1,289 murders, 165 rapes, 151 kidnappings andforced disappearances. 6,681 people were injured, 32,632 tortured, 84,939 arrested and 173 women were shaved bald. Following the victory of theUnited Alignment of Nationalists on 1 April 1946 and until 1 May of the same year, 116 leftists were murdered, 31 injured, 114 tortured, 4 buildings were set aflame and 7 political offices were ransacked.^[74]

InSpain, theWhite Terror (or the "Francoist Repression") refers to the atrocities committed by theNationalists during theSpanish Civil War as well as the atrocities that were committed afterwards inFrancoist Spain(1936–1975).^[75]

Most historians agree that the death toll of the White Terror was higher than that of theRed Terror (1936). While most estimates of Red Terror deaths range from 38,000^[76] to 55,000,^[77] most estimates of White Terror deaths range from 150,000^[78] to 400,000.^[79]

Concrete figures do not exist because many communists and socialists fled Spain after theRepublican faction lost the Civil War. Furthermore, the Francoist government destroyed thousands of documents related to the White Terror^[80][81][82] and tried to hide evidence which revealed its executions of the Republicans.^[83][84] Thousands of victims of the White Terror are buried in hundreds of unmarked common graves, more than 600 inAndalusia alone.^[85] The largest common grave is that at San Rafael cemetery on the outskirts ofMálaga (with perhaps more than 4,000 bodies).^[86] TheAssociation for the Recovery of Historical Memory (Asociación para la Recuperación de la Memoria Historica or ARMH)^[87] says that the number ofdisappeared is over 35,000.^[88]

According to the Platform for Victims of Disappearances Enforced by Francoism, 140,000 people were missing, including victims of the Spanish Civil War and the subsequent Francoist Spain.^[89][90] It has come to mention that regarding the number of disappeared whose remains have not been recovered nor identified, Spain ranks second in the world afterCambodia.^[91]

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