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Anti-Western sentiment, also known asanti-Atlanticism orWesternophobia, refers to broad opposition, bias, or hostility towards the people,culture, or policies of theWestern world.[1][2]
This sentiment is found worldwide. It often stems fromanti-imperialism and criticism ofpast colonial actions by Western powers. For example, in Africa, figures likePatrice Lumumba andMobutu Sese Seko blamed the West for imperialism in theCongo region. In Ethiopia, resentment over internal politics and conflict resolution during theTigray war led to anti-Western sentiment. In the Middle East,Pan-Arabism andIslamism contribute to anti-Western attitudes.Jihadist groups likeAl-Qaeda andISIS view Western countries as targets for terrorism due to perceived insults against Islam and military interventions in Muslim countries. Many Latin American countries harbor criticism due to historical American and European interventions. In Russia, anti-Western sentiment has been endorsed by many. Russian leaders have traditionally rejected Western liberalism which they see as a threat[citation needed] to Russian hegemony in the region.
The phenomenon is often exacerbated by contemporary events. In recent decades, anti-Western feelings have been fueled by factors such as theIraq War, support forIsrael, and sanctions against countries likeIran.
In many modern cases, anti-Western sentiment is fueled byanti-imperialism, particularly againstcountries that are "deemed guilty forcolonialcrimes of the past and present," such asGermany, theUnited Kingdom,France,Spain andPortugal. Anti-Western sentiment occurs in many countries, including the West – especiallyEuropean countries. Broad anti-Western sentiment also exists in theMuslim world againstEuropeans andAmericans.Anti-American sentiment stems fromUS support for Israel, the2003 invasion of Iraq, andnumerous sanctions against Iran.[3]
Samuel P. Huntington argues that after the Cold War, international conflict over economic ideology would be replaced with conflict over cultural differences.[4] His "Clash of Civilizations" argues thateconomic andpolitical regionalism will increasingly shift non-Western countries towardsgeopolitical engagement with countries that share their values. He argues thatMuslim population growth simultaneous to a growth in Islamic fanaticism is leading to a rejection ofWesternization.
Congolese independence leaderPatrice Lumumba blamed the Western world for imperialism. On 1 August 1960, he "gave a speech that indicated in no ambiguous terms that the United Nations, its Secretary-General, the United States, and the Western powers were all corrupt entities."[5] During theCongo Crisis, Lumumba received support from theSoviet Union, which contributed to his overthrow and execution by the Western-backedMobutu Sese Seko.
When Mobutu became leader of the Congo, he renamed the countryZaire and created the national policy ofAuthenticité or Zaireanization, which aimed to remove all Western cultural influence from the country.
In 2001, anti-Western sentiment skyrocketed in the Congo following the assassination of the Congolese presidentLaurent Kabila, with many Congolese citizens blaming the Western world for his death.[6]
Anti-Western sentiment was broadly expressed inEthiopia during theTigray War as a result of resentment over pressure in internal politics and request overresolution of the conflict.[7] On 30 May 2021, apro-government rally took place inAddis Ababa to protest an international pressure denouncing "Western intervention" and US economic and security assistance sanctions. Protestors also waved banners supporting the controversialGrand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam project.[8] On 22 October 2022, tens of thousands protestors took ademonstration in Addis Ababa'sMeskel Square, whereas the other cities in Ethiopia, includingBahir Dar,Gondar,Adama,Dire Dawa andHawassa also hosted a similar demonstration to denounce the intervention.[9]
Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana, had a staunch anti-Western stance and blamed the United States for many of Africa's difficulties.[10]
Located in northeasternNigeria, the name of theextremist IslamicterroristgroupBoko Haram translates to "Western education is forbidden" or "Western civilization is forbidden."
Former Zimbabwean presidentRobert Mugabe used anti-Western rhetoric in his speeches, and he implemented policies that seized farmland from white European farmers.[11]
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Anti-Western sentiment inChina has been increasing since the early 1990s, particularly among Chinese young adults.[12] Notable incidents which have resulted in a significant anti-Western backlash have included the1999 NATO bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade,[13] the 2008 demonstrations during theOlympic torch relay,[14] and allegedWestern media bias,[15] especially in relation to the2008 Tibetan unrest.[16] While available public opinion polls show that theChinese people view the United States in a positive light, there remains suspicion over the West's motives toward China stemming largely from historical experiences, specifically the "century of humiliation."[17][18]
These suspicions have been increased by theChinese Communist Party's "Patriotic Education Campaign".[19] Although Chinesemillennials are largely apathetic to politics, China'sGen Z now has an unprecedentedly low opinion of the West and "Western values" since thereform and opening up of the 1970s.[citation needed] Young Chinese have grievances such as the Western alienation of Chinese tech companies,anti-East Asian racism, anti-Chinese propaganda, and pressure on China's internal affairs, among other issues. In a study conducted by Toronto University in April 2020, 4 out of every 5 Chinese under 30 years old said they do not trust Americans.[20][21]
Although opinion polls suggest positive views towards Western countries today, anti-Western sentiments were common during theBritish Raj due to theIndian independence movement.[22]
Anti-Western sentiment is widespread within theHindu nationalist circles due to various factors likeOccidentalist caricatures & resentment against the anti-Hindu-pro-Muslim attitude of the Western world (which it sees to be dominated bywokes &Islamoleftists) in the context of conflict between Hindus and Muslims.[23][24][25][26] Contempt forWestern values like secularism & liberalism is encouraged by the Hindu nationalists asdecolonialism.[27]
There is a history of criticism of the so-called West within the intellectual history ofJapan.[28]
Historically, anti-Western sentiment in Korea has been linked to the opposition to the Christian missionary activities in the region, most notably by theDonghak Movement.[29][30][31] More recently, it has been related to the occasional difficulties in theAmerican-Korean relationship in South Korea and,to a vastly more pronounced extent, North Korea.[32]
Anti-western sentiments was just that extreme in the early phases of the Republic of Korea.[33] It was confined to a very small number of people who faced arrest and jail under theNational Security Law (1948).[34] TheRhee administration largely exploited the National Security Act to garner support for his extreme right-wing power base. Its use also ensured thatanti-Americanism remained the preserve of extremists ready to risk arrest. In practice, this meant that anti-Americanism remained intimately intertwined. It was associated withMarxism-Leninism until the onset of thedemocratisation movement.[35]
Lee Kuan Yew, the formerPrime Minister of Singapore, argued thatEast Asian orConfucian countries such asChina,Japan,Korea, andVietnam should develop based on "Asian values" or what is generally referred to as "Confucian" or "Sinitic" values.[36] In other words, countries such as theFour Asian Tigers should aspire to have Western-stylestandards of living without acceptingliberal democratic social institutions and principles. The Asian values are primarily influenced by the ideals ofConfucianism, notably filial piety, and social cohesion.[37] The concept of Asian values is widely criticized as a means for instituting authoritarianism, notably byAmartya Sen.[38]
Together with politicalSalafis,jihadists (also calledSalafist jihadists) viewChristian Europe as a land inhabited byinfidels (Dar al-Kufr). For jihadists, this makes Christian Europe a just target for armed jihad, e.g., acts of war or terrorist attacks. Jihadists refer to such lands asDar al-Harb (lands of war).[39] Jihadists themselves motivate their attacks in two prominent ways: to resist Western/Christian military intervention inMuslim countries and to discourage perceived insults againstIslam such as theMuhammad Cartoons.[40]
John Calvert writes that in their critique of the West,Islamists quote Western thinkers likeAlexis Carrel,Oswald Spengler,Arnold J. Toynbee, andArthur Koestler.[41]
Extremiststerroristgroupsal-Qaeda andISIL/ISIS are said to be both anti-Western. They have been known to promoteterrorism inWestern countries, and anti-Western countries, most notablyRussia.[42]
During theOttoman period ofTurkish history, a tradition of anti-Westernism developed.[43][44]
Samuel P. Huntington inClash of Civilizations classifies Russia and the rest ofOrthodox Europe as a different civilization fromWestern civilization.[45]
Anti-Western sentiment inRussia dates back to the 19th-century intellectual debate betweenWesternizers andSlavophiles. While the former deemed Russia to be a lagging Western country, the latter rejected these claims outright and considered Western Europe to be 'rotten' (whence the Russian-language cliche phrase 'rotten West'). An important anti-Western figure during the reign ofAlexander III of Russia wasKonstantin Pobedonostsev, a former liberal who eventually renounced and thoroughly criticized his former views.
Under theSoviet Union, 'the West' eventually became synonymous with 'the capitalist world', resulting in the appearance of the famous propagandist cliché 'corrupting influence of the West'.
After theCold War, a number of politicians in the Russian Federation have supported an explicit promotion ofRussian Orthodox traditionalism and a rejection ofWestern liberalism. Someultra-nationalist politicians, such as the lateVladimir Zhirinovsky, express the most anti-Western sentiment.
Vladimir Putin has promoted explicitly conservative policies in social, cultural and political matters, both at home and abroad. Putin has attackedglobalism andneoliberalism[46] and promoted new think tanks that stressRussian nationalism, the restoration of Russia's historical greatness, and systematic opposition to liberal ideas and policies.[47] Putin has collaborated closely with theRussian Orthodox Church in this cultural campaign.Patriarch Kirill of Moscow, head of the Church, endorsed his election in 2012, stating Putin's terms were like "a miracle of God."[48][49] The Russian Orthodox Church is known to host groups that promote nationalist and anti-Western tendencies.[50][51]
TheRussian government has restricted foreign funding of some liberalNGOs. Pro-Russian activists in the former Soviet Union frequently equate the West withhomosexuality and thegay agenda.[52] The 2013Russian gay propaganda law was welcomed by nationalist and religious political figures in Russia as a bulwark against Western influence.[citation needed]
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TheYarovaya Law prohibits evangelism by religious minorities. It was used to ban theUnited States-basedJehovah's Witnesses.[53]
In 2023, Russia adopted a Eurasianist, anti-Western foreign policy strategy in a document titled "The Concept of the Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation" approved byVladimir Putin. The document defined Russia as a "unique country-civilization and a vastEurasian and Euro-Pacific power" that seeks to create a "Greater Eurasian Partnership" by pursuing close relations with China, India, countries of theIslamic World and rest of theGlobal South (Latin America andsub-Saharan Africa). The policy identifiesUnited States and otherAnglosphere as "the main inspirer, organizer and executor of the aggressiveanti-Russian policy of the collective West" and seeks the end of geopoliticalAmerican dominance in the international scene.[54][55][56]
In his speech in November 2023, Putin claimed that theMongol-Tatar yoke resulting from theMongol invasion of Kievan Rus' was better for the Russian people than Western domination, saying: “Alexander Nevsky received ajarlyk [permission] from the khans of theGolden Horde to rule as a prince, primarily so that he could effectively resist the invasion of the West." According to Putin, the decision to submit to theTatar khans preserved "the Russian people - and later all the peoples living on the territory of our country."[57]
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Anti-Western sentiment exists inLatin America, especially in countries where the population consists mostly ofNative Americans, such asBolivia,Guatemala, orPeru. On the other hand, in countries likeArgentina,Brazil,Chile, andUruguay, Europeans are more represented in the population. Consequently, there are many Latin Americans who identify as Westerners, so the anti-Western discourse is therefore not as prominent as in other regions. That is not to say, however, that there is no anti-Western discourse. Indeed, it can be found in countries with nationalist and populist leaders or movements, including left-wing political parties inColombia,Cuba,Mexico,Nicaragua, orVenezuela. In recent years, Latin American nations have increasingly turned away from theUnited States.
Anti-Western sentiments are related to the history of American and European political interventions in Latin America. Many people in the region lay sharp criticism on the United States for supportingCold War eracoups andCIA-backed military dictatorships. Most Latin American countries tend to be more regional, focusing on internal cooperation. Accompanying this is a notable distrust of globalization. Latin American organizations likeMercosur,Prosur andUnasur are strong groups that represent this aspect of Latin American foreign policy.
Samuel P. Huntington inClash of Civilizations controversially classifies Latin America as a different civilization fromWestern civilization.
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