Antisemitism[a] orJew-hatred[2] is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against,Jews.[3][4][5] This sentiment is a form ofracism,[b][6][7] and a person who harbours it is called anantisemite. Primarily, antisemitic tendencies may be motivated by negative sentiment towardsJews as a people or by negative sentiment towards Jews with regard toJudaism. In the former case, usually presented asracial antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by the belief that Jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that person's society.[8] In the latter case, known asreligious antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by their religion's perception of Jews and Judaism, typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand Jews to turn away from Judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as Judaism's successor faith—this is a common theme within the otherAbrahamic religions.[9][10] The development of racial and religious antisemitism has historically been encouraged byanti-Judaism,[11][12] which is distinct from antisemitism itself.[13]
There are various ways in which antisemitism is manifested, ranging in the level of severity ofJewish persecution. On the more subtle end, it consists of expressions of hatred or discrimination against individual Jews and may or may not be accompanied by violence. On the most extreme end, it consists ofpogroms orgenocide, which may or may not be state-sponsored. Although the term "antisemitism" did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents.[c] Historically, most of the world's violent antisemitic events have taken place in Europe, where modern antisemitism began to emerge fromantisemitism in Christian communities during the Middle Ages. Since the early 20th century, there has been a sharp rise inantisemitic incidents across the Arab world, largely due to the advent ofArab antisemitic conspiracy theories, which were influenced byEuropean antisemitic conspiracy theories.[14][15]
In recent times, the idea that there is a variation of antisemitism known as "new antisemitism" has emerged on several occasions. According to this view, sinceIsrael is aJewish state, expressions ofanti-Zionist positions could harbour antisemitic sentiments, andcriticism of Israel can serve as a vehicle for attacks against Jews in general.[16][17][18]
The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of orientalistMoritz Steinschneider to the views of orientalistErnest Renan. HistorianAlex Bein writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' [i.e., his derogation of the "Semites" as arace]."[26] PsychologistAvner Falk similarly writes: "The German word "antisemitisch" was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase "antisemitische Vorurteile" (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how 'Semitic races' were inferior to 'Aryan races'".[27]
Pseudoscientific theoriesconcerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially asPrussian nationalistic historianHeinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase "the Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used byNazis.[28] According to Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples,[29] based generally on linguistic criteria.[30]
According to philologistJonathan M. Hess, the term was originally used by its authors to "stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism."[31]
Cover page of Marr'sThe Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism, 1880 edition
In 1879, German journalistWilhelm Marr published a pamphlet,Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet (The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective) in which he used the word "Semitismus" interchangeably with the word "Judentum" to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "Jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit).[32][33][34] He accused the Jews of a worldwide conspiracy against non-Jews, called for resistance against "this foreign power", and claimed that "there will be absolutely no public office, even the highest one, which the Jews will not have usurped".[35][better source needed]
This followed his 1862 book "Die Judenspiegel" (A Mirror to the Jews) in which he argued that "Judaism must cease to exist if humanity is to commence", demanding both that Judaism be dissolved as a "religious-denominational sect" but also subject to criticism "as a race, a civil and social entity".[36][37] In the introductions to the first through fourth editions of "Der Judenspiegel", Marr denied that he intended to preach Jew-hatred, but instead to help "the Jews reach their full human potential" which could happen only "through the downfall of Judaism, a phenomenon that negates everything purely human and noble."[36]
This use ofSemitismus was followed by a coining of "Antisemitismus" which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people[38][39] and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture.
The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year Marr founded the "Antisemiten-Liga" (League of Antisemites),[40][41][34] apparently named to follow the "Anti-Kanzler-Liga" (Anti-Chancellor League).[42] The league was the first German organisation committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence and advocating theirforced removal from the country.[citation needed]
So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr publishedZwanglose Antisemitische Hefte, andWilhelm Scherer used the termAntisemiten in the January issue ofNeue Freie Presse.[43][34]
TheJewish Encyclopedia reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the "Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums" speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1881, p. 138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.'"[44]
The word "antisemitism" was borrowed into English from German in 1881.Oxford English Dictionary editorJames Murray wrote that it was not included in the first edition because "Anti-Semite and its family were then probably very new in English use, and not thought likely to be more than passing nonce-words... Would that anti-Semitism had had no more than a fleeting interest!"[45] The related term "philosemitism" was used by 1881.[46]
Usage
From the outset the termanti-Semitism bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice againstJews.[4][21][23] The term has been described as confusing, for in modern usageSemitic designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers ofSemitic languages (e.g.,Arabs,Ethiopians, andAssyrians) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speakHebrew, a Semitic language. Thoughantisemitism could be construed asprejudice against people who speak other Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used.[47]
The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism oranti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form.[1][48] Shmuel Almog argued, "If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful ... [I]n antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that."[49]Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to "[dispel] the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes."[50]
Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include theInternational Holocaust Remembrance Alliance;[1] historianDeborah Lipstadt;[21] Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations atMerrimack College; and historiansYehuda Bauer andJames Carroll. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism'", "the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism".[51]
Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according toOlaf Blaschke, has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews",[56] a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions.
Writing in 1987, Holocaust scholar andCity University of New York professorHelen Fein defined it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."[57]
Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of theUniversity of Cologne writes that, to antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."[58]
For Swiss historianSonja Weinberg, as distinct from economic and religiousanti-Judaism, antisemitism in its specifically modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to "science" to defend itself, new functional forms, and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth thatJews conspired to 'judaise' the world; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism.[59]
A caricature by C. Léandre (France, 1898) showingRothschild with the world in his hands
Bernard Lewis, writing in 2006, defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil".[61] Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.[62]
There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. In 2005, theUnited States Department of State stated that "while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses." For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."[63]
In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism andXenophobia (EUMC, now theFundamental Rights Agency), an agency of theEuropean Union, developed a more detailedworking definition, which stated: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity," but that "criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic."[64] It provided contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group;denying the Holocaust or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews ofdual loyalty or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel.[64]
1889 Paris, France elections poster for self-described "candidat antisémite"Adolphe Willette: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!" (see file for complete translation)
In 1879,Wilhelm Marr founded theAntisemiten-Liga (Anti-Semitic League).[76] Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century. For example,Karl Lueger, the popular mayor offin de siècleVienna, skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage.[77][page needed] In its 1910 obituary of Lueger,The New York Times notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria.[78] In 1895,A. C. Cuza organized theAlianța Antisemită and theLiga Antisemită Universală in Bucharest.[79] In the period beforeWorld War II, when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic.[citation needed]
The earlyZionist pioneerLeon Pinsker, a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding termJudeophobia to antisemitism, which he regarded as a misnomer. The wordJudeophobia first appeared in his pamphlet "Auto-Emancipation", published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews.[80] According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition.[81]
Judeophobia is a form of demonopathy, with the distinction that the Jewish ghost has become known to the whole race of mankind, not merely to certain races... Judeophobia is a psychic disorder. As a psychic disorder, it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it is incurable... Thus have Judaism and Jew-hatred passed through history for centuries as inseparable companions... Having analyzed Judeophobia as a hereditary form of demonopathy, peculiar to the human race, and represented Jew-hatred as based upon an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw the important conclusion, that we must give up contending against these hostile impulses, just as we give up contending against every other inherited predisposition.[82]
In the aftermath of theKristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German propaganda ministerGoebbels announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."[83]
After 1945victory of the Allies over Nazi Germany, and particularly after the full extent of theNazi genocide against the Jews became known, the termantisemitism acquiredpejorative connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term.[84][85] Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no anti-Semites in the world ... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion."[86]
Eternalism–contextualism debate
The study of antisemitism has become politically controversial because of differing interpretations of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.[87] There are two competing views of antisemitism, eternalism, and contextualism.[88] The eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist, transhistorical forceteleologically culminating in the Holocaust.[88][89] Hannah Arendt criticized this approach, writing that it provoked "the uncomfortable question: 'Why the Jews of all people?' ... with the question begging reply: Eternal hostility."[90] Zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of Jews; according to antisemites, it proves the inferiority of Jews, while for Zionists it means that Jews need their own state as a refuge.[91][92] Most Zionists do not believe that antisemitism can be combatted with education or other means.[91]
The contextual approach treats antisemitism as a type of racism and focuses on the historical context in which hatred of Jews emerges.[93] Some contextualists restrict the use of "antisemitism" to refer exclusively to the era of modern racism, treating anti-Judaism as a separate phenomenon.[94] HistorianDavid Engel has challenged the project to define antisemitism, arguing that it essentializes Jewish history as one of persecution and discrimination.[95] Engel argues that the term "antisemitism" is not useful in historical analysis because it implies that there are links between anti-Jewish prejudices expressed in different contexts, without evidence of such a connection.[90]
Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways.René König mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism."[96]
These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ.Bernard Lazare, writing in the 1890s, identified three forms of antisemitism:Christian antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism.[97]William Brustein names four categories: religious, racial, economic, and political.[98] TheRoman Catholic historianEdward Flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:[99]
Nationalistic antisemitism, citingVoltaire and otherEnlightenment thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such askashrut andShabbat;[104]
Louis Harap, writing in the 1980s, separated "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism".[107]
Religious (Jew as Christ-killer),
Economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed),
Social (Jew as social inferior, "pushy", vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact),
Racist (Jews as an inferior "race"),
Ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary),
Cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization).
Religious antisemitism, also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially byconversion to the official or right religion. However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case ofMarranos (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs.[108]
Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that "most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and the like."[109] William Nicholls draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion [...] a Jew ceased to be a Jew uponbaptism." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.[...] From theEnlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews[...] Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear."[110]
Some Christians such as the Catholic priestErnest Jouin, who published the first French translation of theProtocols, combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity."[111] The virulent antisemitism ofÉdouard Drumont, one of the most widely read Catholic writers in France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism.[112][113][114] Drumont founded theAntisemitic League of France.
A World War II-eraSlovak propaganda poster exhorts readers not to "be a servant to the Jew".
The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews.[115]
Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind"[123]
Gerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as "[Jews] control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world".[124][incomplete short citation] Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers.[125][incomplete short citation] During the nineteenth century, Jews were described as "scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted", but after theJewish Emancipation and the rise of Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe were portrayed as "clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate [world finances]".[126][incomplete short citation]
Léon Poliakov asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, economic antisemitism is "distinct and nearly constant" but theological antisemitism is "often subdued".[127]
An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concluded, "that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted but of the persecutors as well."[128]
A Jewish Soviet soldier taken prisoner by the German Army, August 1941. At least 50,000 Jewish soldiers were shot after selection.[129]
Racial antisemitism is prejudice againstJews as a racial/ethnic group, rather thanJudaism as a religion.[130]
Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of theeugenics movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion.[131]
Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of theIndustrial Revolution, following theJewish Emancipation, Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growingnationalism, the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.[132]
In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling the emancipation of the Jews were enacted in Western European countries.[133][134] The old laws restricting them toghettos, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented byracial antisemitism, encouraged by the work of racial theorists such asJoseph Arthur de Gobineau and particularly hisEssay on the Inequality of the Human Race of 1853–1855.Nationalist agendas based onethnicity, known asethnonationalism, usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race.[135] Allied to this were theories ofSocial Darwinism, which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of whiteAryans toSemitic Jews.[136]
Political antisemitism
The whole problem of the Jews exists only in nation states, for here their energy and higher intelligence, their accumulated capital of spirit and will, gathered from generation to generation through a long schooling in suffering, must become so preponderant as to arouse mass envy and hatred. In almost all contemporary nations, therefore – in direct proportion to the degree to which they act up nationalistically – the literary obscenity of leading the Jews to slaughter as scapegoats of every conceivable public and internal misfortune is spreading.
William Brustein defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national or world power. Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises" while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms."[138]Derek J. Penslar wrote, "Political antisemitism identified the Jews as responsible for all the anxiety-provoking social forces that characterizedmodernity."[139]
According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation.[140]
Cultural antisemitism
Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture."[141] Similarly,Eric Kandel characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of "Jewishness" as a "religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education." According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation."[142] Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning "the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live."[143]An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion.[144]
A sign held at a protest inEdinburgh, Scotland, January 2009
Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept ofnew antisemitism, coming simultaneously from theleft, theright, andradical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in theState of Israel,[147] and they argue that the language ofanti-Zionism andcriticism of Israel are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel andZionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism.[18]
Jewish scholarGustavo Perednik posited in 2004 that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews".[18] Proponents of this theory assert that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as theblood libel.[147]
Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and asexploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misusing it to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.[148][149]
Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:[150]
Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature
Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times
Traditional Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews were a protected class
Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism
Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century
Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as theNew Antisemitism
Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature;Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."[151]
In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "theGreek retelling ofAncient Egyptian prejudices".[155] The ancient Jewish philosopherPhilo of Alexandria describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died.[156][157] The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed asmisanthropes.[158] Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, thepoleis.[159][page needed] Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.[160]
Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of manypaganGreek andRoman writers.[161] Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptianlepers who had been taught byMoses "not to adore the gods."[162] Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings."[163]
There are examples ofHellenistic rulers desecrating theTemple and banning Jewish religious practices, such ascircumcision, Shabbat observance, the study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE.
The Jewish diaspora on theNile islandElephantine, which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.[164]
James Carroll asserted: "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such aspogroms andconversions had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."[165]
In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days.[166] Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments",[167] ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.[168]
From the 9th century, themedieval Islamic world classified Jews and Christians asdhimmis and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do inmedieval Christian Europe. UnderIslamic rule, there was aGolden age of Jewish culture in Spain that lasted until at least the 11th century.[169] It ended when several Muslimpogroms against Jews took place on theIberian Peninsula, including those that occurred inCórdoba in 1011 and inGranada in 1066.[170][171][172] Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries.[173]
TheAlmohads, who had taken control of theAlmoravids'Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147,[174] were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated thedhimmis harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.[175][176][177] Some, such as the family ofMaimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,[175] while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.[175]
Inmedieval Europe, Jews were persecuted withblood libels, expulsions,forced conversions andmassacres. These persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during theCrusades. In 1096, hundreds or thousands ofJews were killed during theFirst Crusade.[178] This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel.[179]
In 1147, there were several massacres of Jews during theSecond Crusade. TheShepherds' Crusades of 1251 and1320 both involved attacks, as did theRintfleisch massacres in 1298. Expulsions followed, such as the 1290 banishment of Jews from England, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews from France in 1394,[180] and the 1421 expulsion of thousands of Jews from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.[181]
In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especiallyBernardino of Feltre) and Dominicans (especiallyVincent Ferrer), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.[182]
As theBlack Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used asscapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities weredestroyed in numerous persecutions. AlthoughPope Clement VI tried to protect them by issuing twopapal bulls in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews wereburned alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet affected the city.[183]
Martin Luther, anecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired theReformation, wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphletOn the Jews and their Lies, written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for apogrom against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: "...we are at fault in not slaying them...", a passage that, according to historianPaul Johnson, "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road tothe Holocaust."[184]
During the mid-to-late 17th century thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was theKhmelnytsky Uprising, whenBohdan Khmelnytsky's supporters massacred tens of thousands ofJews in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today'sUkraine). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, andcaptivity in the Ottoman Empire, calledjasyr.[185][186]
European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century.Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor ofNew Amsterdam, implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until theAmerican Revolutionary War that Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe.[187]
In theZaydi imamate ofYemen, Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain ofTihamah and which became known as theMawza Exile.[188]
Enlightenment
In 1744, Archduchess of AustriaMaria Theresa ordered Jews out ofBohemia but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. Thisextortion was known among the Jews asmalke-geld ("queen's money" in Yiddish).[189] In 1752, she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son.
In 1782,Joseph II abolished most of these persecution practices in hisToleranzpatent,[190][191] on the condition thatYiddish andHebrew were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled.[192]Moses Mendelssohn wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."
Voltaire
According toArnold Ages,Voltaire's "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative".[193] Paul H. Meyer adds: "There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France."[194] Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire'sDictionnaire Philosophique concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways.[195]
Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution
Thecounter-revolutionary Catholic royalistLouis de Bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of theFrench Revolution.[196][197] Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influencedNapoleon's decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews.[198][199] Bonald's articleSur les juifs (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such asRoger Gougenot des Mousseaux,Charles Maurras, andÉdouard Drumont, nationalists such asMaurice Barrès andPaolo Orano, and antisemitic socialists such asAlphonse Toussenel.[196][200][201] Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them.[196][202]
Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalistLouis Veuillot propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians.[202][203] Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows.[202] Gougenot des Mousseaux'sLe Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologueAlfred Rosenberg.[202]
Imperial Russia
The victims of a 1905pogrom inYekaterinoslav, Russian Empire (modern-day Ukraine)
Thousands of Jews were slaughtered by CossackHaidamaks in the 1768massacre of Uman in theKingdom of Poland. In 1772, the empress of RussiaCatherine II forced the Jews into thePale of Settlement – which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus – and to stay in theirshtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before thepartition of Poland. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns.[204] A decree by emperorNicholas I of Russia in 1827 conscripted Jews under 18 years of age into thecantonist schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism.[205]
Policy towards Jews was liberalised somewhat underCzar Alexander II (r. 1855–1881).[206] However, his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression such as theMay Laws of 1882.Konstantin Pobedonostsev, nicknamed the "black czar" and tutor to theczarevitch, later crownedCzar Nicholas II, declared that "One-third of the Jews must die, one-third must emigrate, and one third be converted to Christianity".[207]
Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century
HistorianMartin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened inMuslim countries.Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewishgaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."[208]
In the middle of the 19th century,J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life ofPersian Jews, describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…."[209]
In Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews improved.Moses Montefiore, on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and, "surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion." Muslim and Christian Arabs participated inPurim andPassover; Arabs called theSephardis 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; theUlema and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought.[210]
At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, "Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew against his Christian persecutors".[211]
Secular or racial antisemitism
Title page of the second edition ofDas Judenthum in der Musik, published in 1869Antisemitic agitators in Paris burn an effigy of Mathieu Dreyfus during theDreyfus affair
In 1850, the German composerRichard Wagner – who has been called "the inventor of modern antisemitism"[212] – publishedDas Judenthum in der Musik (roughly "Jewishness in Music")[212] under apseudonym in theNeue Zeitschrift für Musik. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals,Felix Mendelssohn andGiacomo Meyerbeer, but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element inGerman culture, who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly "German" art. The crux was the manipulation and control by the Jews of the money economy:[212]
According to the present constitution of this world, the Jew in truth is already more than emancipated: he rules, and will rule, so long as Money remains the power before which all our doings and our dealings lose their force.[212]
Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it.[212]
Antisemitism can also be found in many of theGrimms' Fairy Tales byJacob andWilhelm Grimm, published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being thevillain of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain" ("Der gute Handel") and "The Jew Among Thorns" ("Der Jude im Dorn").
The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense.[213]
Even such influential figures asWalt Whitman tolerated bigotry toward the Jews in America. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews in a bad light.[214]
TheDreyfus Affair was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century.Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillerycaptain in theFrench Army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced tolife imprisonment onDevil's Island. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not.Émile Zola accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.[215]
Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism.[226][227] Iain Hampsher-Monk wrote that "This work [On The Jewish Question] has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-Semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation."[228]
David McLellan andFrancis Wheen argue that readers should interpretOn the Jewish Question in the deeper context of Marx's debates withBruno Bauer, author ofThe Jewish Question, aboutJewish emancipation in Germany. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians".[229] According to McLellan, Marx used the wordJudentum colloquially, as meaningcommerce, arguing that Germans must be emancipated from thecapitalist mode of production not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense".[230]
Public reading of the antisemitic newspaperDer Stürmer,Worms, Germany, 1935
Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75 million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe escapingthe pogroms. This increase, combined with theupward social mobility of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching ofLeo Frank by a mob of prominent citizens inMarietta, Georgia, in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States.[231] The case was also used to build support for the renewal of theKu Klux Klan which had been inactive since 1870.[232]
In September 1935, theNuremberg Laws prohibited sexual relations and marriages between "Aryans" and Jews asRassenschande ("race disgrace") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- andhalf-Jews, of their citizenship (their official title became "subjects of the state").[237] It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbedKristallnacht, in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched.[238][full citation needed] Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended toGerman-occupied Europe in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions.[citation needed]
In 1940, the famous aviatorCharles Lindbergh and many prominent Americans led theAmerica First Committee in opposing any involvement in a European war. Lindbergh alleged that Jews were pushing America to go to war against Germany.[239][240][241] Lindbergh adamantly denied being antisemitic, and yet he refers numerous times in his private writings – his letters and diary – to Jewish control of the media being used to pressure the U.S. to get involved in the European war. In one diary entry in November 1938, he responded toKristallnacht by writing "I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans. ... They have undoubtedly had a difficult Jewish problem, but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?", acknowledgement on Lindbergh's part that he agreed with the Nazis that Germany had a "Jewish problem".[242] An article by Jonathan Marwil inAntisemitism, A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution claims that "no one who ever knew Lindbergh thought him antisemitic" and that claims of his antisemitism were solely tied to the remarks he made in that one speech.[243]
Holocaust denial, the claim that the Nazi genocide of European Jews during theSecond World War either never happened or is substantially exaggerated by historical accounts, is a form of antisemitism and conspiracy theory.[248][249] Political movements seeking to revive the ideologies of the Nazis and other states that participated in the Holocaust, likeneo-Nazism andneofascism, practice Holocaust denial.[250][251]
There have continued to be antisemitic incidents since WWII, some of which had been state-sponsored. In theSoviet Union, antisemitism was even used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts, starting with the conflict betweenJoseph Stalin andLeon Trotsky and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda.Antisemitism in the USSR reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "rootless cosmopolitan" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters, and sculptors were killed or arrested.[255][256] This culminated in the antisemitic conspiracy theory of the 'Doctors' Plot' in 1952.[citation needed]
In the 20th century,Soviet andRussian antisemitism underwent significant transformations, shaped by political, social, and ideological shifts. During the early Soviet period, theBolsheviks initially condemned antisemitism, seeing it as incompatible withMarxist ideology. However, underJoseph Stalin's regime, antisemitism reemerged, often cloaked in 'anti-Zionist' rhetoric. As early as 1943, Stalin and his propagandists intensified attacks against Jews as "rootless cosmopolitans".[257] The Party issued confidential directives to fire Jews from positions of power, but state-controlled media did not openly attack Jews until the late 1940s.[257] TheDoctors' plot of 1952, a fabricated conspiracy accusing predominantly Jewish doctors of attempting to assassinate Soviet leaders, exemplified this resurgence. This campaign fostered widespread antisemitic sentiments and resulted in the arrest and execution of numerous Jewish professionals.
In that same year, the antisemiticSlánský show trial alleged the existence of an 'international Zionist conspiracy' to destroy Socialism. Izabella Tabarovsky, a scholar of the history of antisemitism, argues that, "Manufactured by the Soviet secret services, the trial tied together Zionism, Israel, Jewish leaders, and American imperialism, turning 'Zionism' and 'Zionist' into dangerous labels that could be used against one's political enemies."[258] In the post-Stalin era, state-sanctioned antisemitism persisted and intensified. In February 1953, the Soviet Union severed diplomatic relations with theState of Israel and "soon the state media was saturated with anti-Zionist propaganda, depicting bloated, hook-nosed Jewish bankers and all-consuming serpents embossed with the Star of David."[259] The 1963 publication of the antisemitic bookJudaism Without Embellishment, written under orders from the central Soviet government, echoedNazi propaganda, alleging a global Jewish conspiracy to subvert the Soviet Union.[258] It was the beginning of a new wave of government-sponsored anti-Semitism.[citation needed]
TheSix-Day War in 1967 led to an intensification in Soviet anti-Zionist propaganda as the Soviets had backed the defeated Arab states.[258] This propaganda often blurred the lines with antisemitism, leading to discriminatory policies against Jews and restricting their emigration. By the end of the war, "the "corporate Jew", whether "cosmopolitan" or "Zionist", became identified as the enemy. Popular anti-Semitic stereotyping had been absorbed into official channels, generated by chauvinist needs and totalitarian requirements."[260] TheAnti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public shut down and expropriatedsynagogues,yeshivas, and Jewish civil organisations and prohibited the learning ofHebrew.[citation needed] It also engaged in a wide-scale propaganda campaign between 1967 and 1988 overseen by theKGB and published pamphlets featuring antisemitic conspiracy theories, for example falsely claiming that Zionist Jews collaborated with the Nazi regime in the Holocaust and of inflating the significance and scale of anti-Jewish persecution.[258]
Their propaganda frequently borrowed directly from the forgedProtocols of the Elders of Zion and sometimes relied uponAdolf Hitler'sMein Kampf as a source of information about Zionism.[258] Antizionism helped Moscow "bond both with its Arab allies and the Western hard left of all shades. Having appointed Zionism as a scapegoat for humanity's greatest evils, Soviet propaganda could score points by equating it with racism in African radio broadcasts and with Ukrainian nationalism on Kyiv TV."[261] The still-extantNovosti Press Agency, a key element in the Soviet propaganda machine, also participated in the spreading of antisemitic anti-Zionism. Its chairman, Ivan Udaltsov, published a memorandum on 27 January 1971, to theCPSU in which he claimed that "Zionists, by provoking antisemitism, recruit volunteers for the Israeli army", blaming Jews for antisemitism, and falsely alleged that Zionists were responsible for "subversive activities" during the 1968Prague Spring.[261] According to historianWilliam Korey, "Judaism was singled out for condemnation as prescribing 'racial exclusivism' and as justifying 'crimes against 'Gentiles.'"[260]
Physical assaults against Jews in Europe have included beatings, stabbings, and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death.[264][265] A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that "European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism."[266]
This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with bothMuslim antisemitism and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008.[267] This rise in the support for far-right ideas inwestern andeastern Europe has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews.[268]
In Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government, along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such asblood libels. Writing on therhetoric surrounding the 2022Russian invasion of Ukraine,Jason Stanley relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives: "the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern Europe today is that Jews employ the Holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the 'real' victims of the Nazis, who are Russian Christians (or other non-Jewish eastern Europeans)".[269] He calls out the "myths of contemporary eastern European antisemitism – that a global cabal of Jews were (and are) the real agents of violence against Russian Christians and the real victims of the Nazis were not the Jews, but rather this group."[269]
Most of the antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe are against Jewish cemeteries and buildings (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue,[270] the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999,[271] the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine[272] and the attack against amenorah by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009.[273]
According to Paul Johnson, antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed.[274] While no European state currently has such policies, theEconomist Intelligence Unit notes the rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as something that is particularly alarming for Jews.[275]
In a 2011 survey by thePew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held significantly negative opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% ofEgyptians, 3% ofLebanese Muslims, and 2% ofJordanians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly held markedly negative views of Jews, with 4% ofTurks and 9% ofIndonesians viewing Jews favorably.[277]
According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance toNazi propaganda.[278] According to Josef Joffe ofNewsweek, "anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic."[279]
Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.[280][281][282]
4% of African-Americans self-identified asBlack Hebrew Israelites in 2019.[294] Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.[295]
Extremist groups of Black Hebrew Israelites believe that Jewish people are "imposters", who have "stolen" Black Americans' true racial and religious identity.[295][296] Some of these groups also promote the unsupportedKhazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry.[295] In 2022, theAmerican Jewish Committee stated that theBlack Hebrew Israelite claim that "we are the real Jews" is a "troubling anti-Semitic trope with dangerous potential".[297]
The perpetrators of several antisemitic attacks in the United States have expressed interest in the Black Hebrew Israelites.[298][299][300] Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.[295] In September 2022, the Program on Extremism at George Washington University published a report which said the largest threat came from "individuals loosely affiliated with or inspired by the movement", rather than from formal members of Black Hebrew Israelite organizations.[294][296]
Antisemitism on the internet
Antisemitism on the internet involves a complex interplay between social media dynamics, conspiracy theories, and the broader socio-political context. Social media platforms have proved fertile for breeding antisemitic rhetoric, particularly during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic, during which a notable rise in antisemitic conspiracy theories emerged.[301][302][full citation needed][303][full citation needed] The role of social media in amplifying these sentiments is underscored by analyses of comment sections on major media outlets, which reveal a significant presence of antisemitic discourse, often framed within the context of political events and international relations.[304][page needed][305] Furthermore, the emergence of TikTok as a new platform has raised concerns about the proliferation of antisemitic content, with studies highlighting the challenges of moderating such material effectively.[306][verification needed][307][verification needed] The intersection of antisemitism with broader themes of populism and right-wing extremism is also evident, as these ideologies often utilize antisemitic narratives to galvanize support and create a sense of otherness.[305][308] Additionally, the phenomenon of subtle hate speech has been identified, where antisemitic sentiments are recontextualized in ways that may evade direct detection yet still perpetuate harmful stereotypes.[309] Antisemitic bias appears even in ostensibly neutral sources such ason the Wikipedia platform.[310] Overall, the digital landscape presents both challenges and opportunities for combating antisemitism, necessitating a multifaceted approach that includes community engagement and technological solutions to monitor and counteract hate speech effectively.[311][312]
Antisemitism scholar Lars Fischer writes that "scholars distinguish between theories that assume an actual causal (rather than merely coincidental) correlation between what (some) Jews do and antisemitic perceptions (correspondence theories), on the one hand, and those predicated on the notion that no such causal correlation exists and that 'the Jews' serve as a foil for the projection of antisemitic assumptions, on the other."[314] The latter position is exemplified byTheodor W. Adorno, who wrote that "Anti-Semitism is the rumour about the Jews"; in other words, "a conspiratorial mentality that sees Jewish people as invisible and yet ubiquitous, as capable of pulling the strings of power from behind the scenes."[315][316]
As an example of the correspondence theory, an 1894 book byBernard Lazare questions whether Jews themselves were to blame for some antisemitic stereotypes, for instance arguing that Jews traditionally keeping strictly to their own communities, with their own practices and laws, led to a perception of Jews as anti-social; he later abandoned this belief and the book is considered antisemitic today.[317][318][319] As another example,Walter Laqueur suggested that the antisemitic perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used instereotypes of Jews) probably evolved in Europe during medieval times where a large portion ofmoney lending was operated by Jews.[320] Among factors thought to contribute to this situation include that Jews were restricted from other professions,[320] while theChristian Church declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral "usury",[321] although recent scholarship, such as that of historianJulie Mell shows that Jews were not overrepresented in the sector and that the stereotype was founded in Christianprojection of taboo behaviour on to the minority.[314][322][323]
InAnti-Judaism: The Western Tradition (2013), historianDavid Nirenberg traces the history of antisemitism, arguing that antisemitism should be understood not as a product of isolated historical events or cultural biases but is instead embedded within the very fabric of Western thought and society.[324][page needed] Its foundation lies in the early claim ofJewish deicide and depictions of Jews as 'Christ-killers'. Throughout Western history, Jews have since been used as a symbolic 'other' to define and articulate the values and boundaries of various cultures and intellectual traditions. In philosophy, literature, and politics, Jewishness has often been constructed as a counterpoint to what is considered normative or ideal. One of the key insights from Nirenberg's work is that antisemitism has proven to be remarkably adaptable.[citation needed] It changes form and adapts to different contexts and times, whether in medieval religious disputes, Enlightenment critiques, or modern racial theories. Philosophers and intellectuals have often used 'Jewishness' as a foil to explore and define their ideas. For instance, in theEnlightenment, figures likeVoltaire critiqued Judaism as backward and superstitious to promote their visions of reason and progress. Similarly, theSoviet Union frequentlyportrayed Judaism as linked with capitalism and mercantilism, standing in opposition to the ideals of proletarian solidarity andcommunism. In each case, Judaism or the Jews are portrayed as standing in tension with prevailing moral norms.[324]
Author and scholarDara Horn published an article inThe Atlantic reflecting on her previous published doubts about the effectiveness ofHolocaust educationpedagogy and the rising antisemitism in the wake of theOctober 7th Massacre in Israel by Palestinians.[325] In it, Horn argues that antisemitism functions by appropriating what has happened to Jews and recasting their experience as part of a broader, universal struggle, which always ends in ultimately redefining Jewish identity as incompatible with these ideals. She concludes that the attacks on Jews, often under the guise of anti-Zionism, follow the same ancient pattern of marginalization and vilification.
This is the permission structure for anti-Semitism: claim whatever has happened to the Jews as one's own experience, announce a "universal" ideal that all good people must accept, and then redefine Jewish collective identity as lying beyond it. Hating Jews thus becomes a demonstration of righteousness. The key is to define, and redefine, and redefine again, the shiny new moral reasoning for why the Jews have failed the universal test of humanity.[325]
Prevention through education
Education plays an important role in addressing and overcomingprejudice and countering socialdiscrimination.[326] However, education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself; it is also about building a sense ofglobal citizenship and solidarity, respect for, and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active, democratic citizens. Education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages and raises awareness about the forms, manifestations, and impact of antisemitism faced byJews and Jewish communities.[326]
Some Jewish writers have argued that public education about antisemitism through the prism of theHolocaust is unhelpful at best or actively deepening antisemitism at worst.Dara Horn wrote inThe Atlantic that "Auschwitz is not a metaphor", arguing "That the Holocaust drives home the importance of love is an idea, like the idea that Holocaust education prevents anti-Semitism, that seems entirely unobjectionable. It is entirely objectionable. The Holocaust didn't happen because of a lack of love. It happened because entire societies abdicated responsibility for their own problems, and instead blamed them on the people who represented—have always represented, since they first introduced the idea of commandedness to the world—the thing they were most afraid of: responsibility."[327]
Instead, she argues that perhaps "a more effective way to address anti-Semitism might lie in cultivating a completely different quality, one that happens to be the key to education itself: curiosity. Why use Jews as a means to teach people that we're all the same, when the demand that Jews be just like their neighbors is exactly what embedded the mental virus of anti-Semitism in the Western mind in the first place? Why not instead encourage inquiry about the diversity, to borrow a de rigueur word, of the human experience?"[328]
A March 2008 report by theU.S. State Department found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist.[329] A 2012 report by the U.S.Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism.[330] In 2014, the Anti-Defamation League conducted a study titledADL Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism,[331] which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and, among other findings, that as many as "27% of people who have never met a Jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against him".[332]
In August 2024, the Israeli Ministry of the Diaspora announced a new antisemitism monitoring project.[333][334] The goal of the project is to measure levels of antisemitism in various countries, as well as identify instigators and trends.[333] In the event that antisemitism in a given country gets bad, the Israeli government may reach out to the local government to try to rectify the situation.[333]
^Also spelledanti-semitism oranti-Semitism; TheInternational Holocaust Remembrance Alliance has stated that the spelling without hyphenation is preferred, because the spelling with hyphenation implies that "Semitism" is a valid concept.[1]
^"Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945".United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.Archived from the original on 31 March 2020. Retrieved20 September 2023.These new 'antisemites,' as they called themselves, drew upon older stereotypes to maintain that the Jews behaved the way they did—and would not change—because of innate racial qualities inherited from the dawn of time. Drawing as well upon the pseudoscience of racialeugenics, they argued that the Jews spread their so-called pernicious influence to weaken nations inCentral Europe not only by political, economic, and media methods, but also literally by 'polluting' so-called pureAryan blood by intermarriage and sexual relations with non-Jews. They argued that Jewish 'racial intermixing,' by 'contaminating' and weakening the host nations, served as part of a consciousJewish plan for world domination.
Lewis, Bernard."Semites and Anti-Semites". Archived fromthe original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved27 October 2018.. Extract fromIslam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East, The Library Press, 1973.
^Vermeulen, H. F. (2015).Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment. Critical Studies in the History of Anthropology Series.University of Nebraska Press.ISBN978-0-8032-7738-0. Retrieved7 October 2022.Schlözer 1781: p.161 "From the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, from Mesopotamia to Arabia ruled one language, as is well known. Thus Syrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, and Arabs were one people (ein Volk). Phoenicians (Hamites) also spoke this language, which I would like to call the Semitic (die Semitische). To the north and east of this Semitic language and national district (Semitische Sprach- und VölkerBezirke) begins a second one: With Moses and Leibniz I would like to call it the Japhetic."
^Hess, Jonathan M. (Winter 2000). "Johann David Michaelis and the Colonial Imaginary: Orientalism and the Emergence of Racial Antisemitism in Eighteenth-Century Germany".Jewish Social Studies.6 (2):56–101.doi:10.1353/jss.2000.0003.S2CID153434303.When the term "antisemitism" was first introduced in Germany in the late 1870s, those who used it did so in order to stress the radical difference between their own "antisemitism" and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism.
^Jaspal, Rusi (2014)."Antisemitism: Conceptual Issues".Antisemitism and Anti-Zionism: Representation, Cognition and Everyday Talk. Farnham, Surrey:Ashgate Publishing.ISBN9781472407252.Archived from the original on 29 December 2023. Retrieved27 October 2018. Jaspal erroneously gives the date of publication as 1873.
^Marr, Wilhelm (1879).Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet [The Victory of Judaism over Germanism. Viewed from a Non-Confessional Point of View] (in German) (8th ed.). Rudolph Costenoble – viaInternet Archive. Marr uses the word "Semitismus" (Semitism) on pages 7, 11, 14, 30, 32, and 46; for example, one finds in the conclusion the following passage: "Ja, ich bin überzeugt, ich habe ausgesprochen, was Millionen Juden im Stillen denken: Dem Semitismus gehört die Weltherrschaft!" (Yes, I am convinced that I have articulated what millions of Jews are quietly thinking: World domination belongs to Semitism!) (p. 46).
^Zimmermann (1987), p. 112: "The term "anti-Semitism" was unsuitable from the beginning for the real essence of Jew-hatred, which remained anchored, more or less, in the Christian tradition even when it moved via the natural sciences, into racism. It is doubtful whether the term which was first publicized in an institutional context (the Anti-Semitic League) would have appeared at all if the "Anti-Chancellor League," which fought Bismarck's policy, had not been in existence since 1875. The founders of the new Organization adopted the elements of "anti" and "league," and searched for the proper term: Marr exchanged the term "Jew" for "Semite" which he already favored. It is possible that the shortened form "Sem" is used with such frequency and ease by Marr (and in his writings) due to its literary advantage and because it reminded Marr of Sem Biedermann, his Jewish employer from the Vienna period."
^Botsch, Gideon[in German]; Treß, Werner (2020). "Moderner Antisemitismus und Sattelzeit: Das Beispiel Paul de Lagarde" [Modern Antisemitism and the Saddle Period: The Example of Paul de Lagarde]. InBehlmer, Heike[in German]; Gertzen, Thomas L.; Witthuhn, Orell (eds.).Der Nachlass Paul de Lagarde: Orientalistische Netzwerke und Antisemitische Verflechtungen [The Estate of Paul de Lagarde: Orientalist Networks and Antisemitic Entanglements]. Europäisch-jüdische Studien Beiträge (in German). Vol. 46. Oldenburg:De Gruyter. p. 122.ISBN978-3-11-061546-3.
"Memo on Spelling of Antisemitism"(PDF).International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. April 2015.Archived(PDF) from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved24 May 2019.... the hyphenated spelling allows for the possibility of something called 'Semitism', which not only legitimizes a form of pseudo-scientific racial classification that was thoroughly discredited by association with Nazi ideology, but also divides the term, stripping it from its meaning of opposition and hatred toward Jews.
^Almog, Shmuel (Summer 1989)."What's in a Hyphen?".Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism. Archived fromthe original on 28 April 1999. Retrieved3 April 2024. Published in SICSA report: the newsletter of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Republished in 2014 by Alabama Holocaust Education Center: ahecinfo.org/wp-content/uploads/Why-antisemitism-with-no-hyphen.pdf{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^Jo Zerivitz, Marcia (1 February 2021)."In a word, it's antisemitism".Jewish Press of Tampa Bay.Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved18 July 2023.
^Fine, Helen, ed. (1987).The persisting question: sociological perspectives and social contexts of modern antisemitism. Berlin:De Gruyter. p. 67.ISBN978-3-11-010170-6.
^Volovici, Leon."Antisemitic Parties and Movements".The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. Translated by Mircea, Anca. Archived fromthe original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved6 February 2025.
^Bauer, Yehuda (1984). "The Most Ancient Group Prejudice". In Eitinger, Leo (ed.).The Anti-Semitism of Our Time. Oslo: Nansen Committee. p. 14., cited in:Hellig, Jocelyn (2003).The Holocaust and Antisemitism: A Short History. Oneworld Publications. p. 73.ISBN1-85168-313-5.
^Baeumler, Alfred (1931).Nietzsche, der Philosoph und Politiker [Nietzsche, the Philosopher and Politician] (in German).Reclam. pp. 8, 63,et passim.ASINB002803IJK.
^Gruen, Erich S. (1993). "Hellenism and Persecution: Antiochus IV and the Jews". In Green, Peter (ed.).Hellenistic History and Culture.University of California Press. pp. 250–252 [238].
^Tcherikover, Victor (1975).Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews. New York: Atheneum.
^Bohak, Gideon (2003). "The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Antisemitism' in Historical Context". In Mor, Menachem; Pastor, Jack; Oppenheimer, Aharon; Schwartz, Daniel R. (eds.).Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud. Yad Ben-Zvi Press. pp. 27–43.ISBN9652172057.
^History of the reign of Charles VI, titledChronique de Religieux de Saint-Denys, encompasses the king's full reign in six volumes. Originally written in Latin, the work was translated to French in six volumes by L. Bellaguet between 1839 and 1852.
^Mormando, Franco (1999). "2".The Preacher's Demons: Bernardino of Siena and the Social Underworld of Early Renaissance Italy. Chicago:University of Chicago Press.
^Barry, Stéphane; Gualde, Norbert (June 2006). "La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire" [The greatest epidemics in history].L'Histoire (in French). No. 310. p. 47.
^"Judaism Timeline 1618–1770".CBS News. Archived fromthe original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved13 May 2007.Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed.
^Gilbert, Martin (1999).Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past.Columbia University Press. p. 219.ISBN0-231-10965-2.... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's soldiers on the rampage.
^Büchler, Alexander (1904). "Hungary". In Singer, Isidore (ed.).The Jewish Encyclopedia. Vol. 6. New York and London:Funk and Wagnalls Co. pp. 494–503.
^Graetz, Michael (1996).The Jews in Nineteenth-century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israélite Universelle.Stanford University Press. p. 208.
^Jacobs, Jack (2005). "Marx, Karl (1818–1883)". InLevy, Richard S. (ed.).Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution. Santa Barbara, CA:ABC-CLIO. pp. 446–447.ISBN978-1-85109-439-4.
^Stav, Arieh (2003). "Israeli Anti-Semitism". In Sharan, Shlomo (ed.).Israel and the Post-Zionists: A Nation at Risk. Brighton:Sussex Academic Press. p. 171.ISBN978-1-903900-52-9.Hitler simply copied Marx's own anti-Semitism.
^According to Joshua Muravchik Marx's aspiration for "the emancipation of society from Judaism" because "the practical Jewish spirit" of "huckstering" had taken over the Christian nations is not that far from the Nazi program's twenty-four-point: "combat[ing] the Jewish-materialist spirit within us and without us" in order "that our nation can […] achieve permanent health." SeeMuravchik, Joshua (2003).Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism. San Francisco:Encounter Books. p. 164.ISBN978-1-893554-45-0.
Brown, Wendy (1995). "Rights and Identity in Late Modernity: Revisiting the 'Jewish Question'". In Sarat, Austin; Kearns, Thomas (eds.).Identities, Politics, and Rights.University of Michigan Press. pp. 85–130.
^Abramson, Henry."Russian Civil War".YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe.Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved6 February 2019.
^Cole, Wayne S. (1974).Charles Lindbergh and the Battle Against American Intervention in World War II. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 171–174.ISBN0-15-118168-3.
^Levy, Richard S. "Lindbergh, Charles (1902–1974)" inLevy (2005), vol. 1, pp.423–424
^Martin Kitchen (2007)The Third Reich: A Concise History. Tempus.
^abSaul Friedländer (2008):The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews. London, Phoenix
^Benz, Wolfgang (1 October 1995) [1991]. Gutman, Israel (ed.).Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus [Dimension of Genocide: The Number of Jewish Victims of National Socialism]. Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (in German) (Reference ed.). Munich: Macmillan Reference Books: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag.
^Dawidowicz, Lucy (1975).The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
^Schweitzer, Frederick M.; Perry, Marvin (2002).Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present.Palgrave Macmillan. p. 3.ISBN0-312-16561-7.This books treats several of the myths that have made antisemitism so lethal.... In addition to these historic myths, we also treat the new, maliciously manufactured myth of Holocaust denial, another groundless belief that is used to stir up Jew-hatred.
^"Introduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism".Anti-Defamation League. Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda. 2001. Archived fromthe original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved12 June 2007.While appearing on the surface as a rather arcane pseudo-scholarly challenge to the well-established record of Nazi genocide during the Second World War, Holocaust denial serves as a powerful conspiracy theory uniting otherwise disparate fringe groups....
^Atkins, Stephen E. (2009).Holocaust Denial as an International Movement.ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-0-313-34538-8.Holocaust denial has played an important role in the revitalization of the Neo-Nazi movement. There was a smaller but nonetheless vocal number of supporters in other Western European countries and the United States. These neo-Nazis realized that a Hitlerite regime was impossible, but a reasonable facsimile was possible in the future. These neo-Nazis and their allies realized that any rehabilitation of Nazism could be accomplished only by discrediting the Holocaust.
^Serafis, Dimitris; Boukala, Salomi (2023). "Subtle hate speech and the recontextualisation of antisemitism online: Analysing argumentation on Facebook". In Esposito, Eleonora; KhosraviNik, Majid (eds.).Discourse in the Digital Age: Social Media, Power, and Society.Routledge. pp. 143–167.ISBN9781003300786.
^Ozalp, S.; Williams, M.; Burnap, P.; Liu, H.; Mostafa, M. (2020). "Antisemitism on twitter: collective efficacy and the role of community organisations in challenging online hate speech".Social Media + Society.6 (2).doi:10.1177/2056305120916850.
^schalomlibertad (23 July 2009)."Antisemitism and the (modern) critique of capitalism".libcom.org.Archived from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved5 December 2023.Adorno, T. (1951), Minima Moralia. Reflexionen aus dem beschädigten Leben, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, p. 141.
^Lazare, Bernard (2006).Anti-Semitism: Its History and Causes. Cosimo, Inc. p. 9.ISBN9781596056015.
^Brustein, William L.; Roberts, Louisa (2015).The Scialism of Fools: Leftist Origins of Modern Anti-Semitism.Cambridge University Press. p. 55.Lazare argued in his book that Jews, because of their exclusiveness, arrogance, and unsociability, were themselves responsible for anti-Semitism. Lazare blames the Jewish religion and laws for these negative traits. His bool was widely reviewed and is by many accounts a seminal anti-Semitic text. Lazare's authorship of such an anti-Semitic work is ironic, given the role he would soon play in the Dreyfus Affair.
Baasten, Martin F. J. (2003)."A Note on the History of 'Semitic'". In Baasten, M. F. J.; Van Peursen, W. Th. (eds.).Hamlet on a Hill: Semitic and Greek Studies Presented to Professor T. Muraoka on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday. Peeters. pp. 57–73.ISBN90-429-1215-4.
Harzig, Christiane; Hoerder, Dirk; Shubert, Adrian (2003).The historical practice of diversity: transcultural interactions from the early modern Mediterranean to the postcolonial world. New York:Berghahn Books.ISBN1-57181-377-2.
Majer, Diemut (2014)."Non-Germans" Under The Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe, with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945.Texas Tech University Press.ISBN978-0896728370.
O'Brien, Charles H. (1969). "Ideas of Religious Toleration at the time of Joseph II".Transactions of the American Philosophical Society.59 (7).doi:10.2307/1006062.JSTOR1006062.
Sachar, Howard Morley (1961).Aliyah: The People of Israel. World Publishing Company.
Troy, Gil (2024). "Zionism: A Response to Antisemitism?". In Weitzman, Mark; Williams, Robert J.; Wald, James (eds.).The Routledge History of Antisemitism.Routledge. pp. 390–398.ISBN978-1138369443.
Williams, Robert J. (2024). "Antisemitism and Diseases, Pandemics, and Public Health Crises". In Weitzman, Mark; Williams, Robert J.; Wald, James (eds.).The Routledge History of Antisemitism.Routledge. pp. 284–297.ISBN978-1138369443.
Gerber, Jane S. (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World". In Berger, David (ed.).History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism. Jewish Publications Society.ISBN0-8276-0267-7.
Selzer, Michael, ed. (1972)."Kike!": A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America. New York.ISBN978-0529044716.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Small, Charles Asher ed.The Yale Papers: Antisemitism In Comparative Perspective (Institute For the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy, 2015).onlineArchived 3 October 2021 at theWayback Machine, scholarly studies.
Stav, Arieh (1999).Peace: The Arabian Caricature – A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery. Gefen Publishing House.ISBN965-229-215-X.
Steinweis, Alan E.Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany. Harvard University Press, 2006.ISBN0-674-02205-X.
Stillman, Norman.The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. 1979).ISBN0-8276-0198-0
Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud".Encyclopaedia of Islam. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
Tausch, Arno (2018). "The Effects of 'Nostra Aetate:' Comparative Analyses of Catholic Antisemitism More Than Five Decades after the Second Vatican Council".SSRN3098079.
Tausch, Arno (17 November 2018). "The Return of Religious Antisemitism? The Evidence from World Values Survey Data".SSRN3286326.
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