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Anti-Mongol,Anti-Mongoloid,Anti-Mongolism,Anti-Mongolianism or alsoAnti-Mongolian sentiment, is the term used to describe, in general, the prejudice against or hatred towardMongolia or its people. It has been built throughout history by the expansions of theMongol Empire and its divisions such as theGolden Horde, being prevalently made by grievancies with countries that were attacked or conquered in said times, which by extent lists most of Europe.
TheTsardom of Russia, theRussian Empire, and theSoviet Union performed many atrocities against the Mongols[1] (assimilate, reduce the population,extinguish the language, culture, tradition, history, religion andethnic identity). During the existence of theRussian Empire, TsarPeter the Great said: "The headwaters of theYenisei River must be Russian land".[2] The Russian Empire sent theKalmyks andBuryats to war to reduce the populations (World War I and other wars).[3]
Soviet Russian scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they were not Mongols during the 20th century (demongolization policy). 35,000 Buryats were killed duringthe rebellion of 1927 and around one-third of Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s.[4][5] In 1919 the Buryats established a smalltheocratic Balagad state inKizhinginsky District of Russia and the Buryat's state fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate the Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but Russia refused. 71–93,000 (around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the famine.[6] The Kalmyks revolted against Russia in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. On 23 April 1923Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Soviet Union at the time, said "We are carrying out a wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols. Our policy is too peaceful".[7] In March 1927, the Soviet government deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia andKarelia. The Kalmyks founded sovereignRepublic of Oirat-Kalmyk on 22 March 1930.[7] The Oirat State created a military and clashed with the Soviet Red Army. 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in the Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirat State was destroyed by the Red Army in 1930.
The Soviet Uniondeported all Kalmyks toSiberia in 1943 and around half of (97–98,000) Kalmyk people deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957.[8] The government of the Soviet Union forbade teachingKalmyk language during their time in Siberia. The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army. MarshalKhorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under the Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples," repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as an act of genocide.
TheDzungars Mongols lived in an area that stretched from the west end of theGreat Wall of China to present-day easternKazakhstan and from present-day northernKyrgyzstan to southernSiberia (most of which is located in present-dayXinjiang), and were the lastnomadic empire to threatenChina, which they did from the early 17th century through the middle of the 18th century.[9] After a series of inconclusive military conflicts that started in the 1680s, the Dzungars were subjugated by theManchu-ledQing dynasty (1644–1912) in the late 1750s.
Clarke argued that the Qing campaign in 1757–58 "amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people."[10] After theQianlong Emperor led Qing forces to victory over the Dzungar Oirat (Western) Mongols in 1755, he originally was going to split the Dzungar Khanates into four tribes headed by four Khans. The Khoit tribe was to have the Dzungar leader Amursana as its Khan. Amursana rejected the Qing arrangement and rebelled since he wanted to be leader of a united Dzungar nation. The Qianlong Emperor then issued his orders for the genocide and eradication of the entire Dzungar nation and name, QingManchuBannermen andKhalkha (Eastern) Mongols enslaved Dzungar women and children while slaying the other Dzungars.[11]
TheQianlong Emperor then ordered thegenocide of the Dzungars, moving the remaining Dzungar people to the mainland and ordering the generals to kill all the men inBarkol orSuzhou, and divided their wives and children to Qing forces, which were made out ofManchuBannermen andKhalkha Mongols.[12][13] Qing scholarWei Yuan estimated the total population of Dzungars before the fall at 600,000 people or 200,000 households. Oirat officer Saaral betrayed and battled against the Oirats. In a widely cited[14][15][16] account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Dzungar households were killed bysmallpox, 20% fled to Russia orKazakh tribes, and 30% were killed by the Qing army ofManchuBannermen andKhalkha Mongols, leaving noyurts in an area of several thousandli except those of the surrendered.[17] During this war Kazakhs attacked dispersed Oirats andAltays. Based on this account, Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungars (especiallyChoros,Olot,Khoid,Baatud andZakhchin) were destroyed by disease and attack[18] which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people."[19] HistorianPeter Perdue attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor, but he also observed signs of a more lenient policy after mid-1757.[15] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".[20] The Dzungar genocide was completed by a combination of a smallpox epidemic and the direct slaughter of Dzungars by Qing forces made out of Manchu Bannermen and (Khalkha) Mongols.[21]
Anti-DzungarUyghur rebels from the Turfan and Hami oases had submitted to Qing rule as vassals and requested Qing help for overthrowing Dzungar rule. Uyghur leaders likeEmin Khoja were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and these Uyghurs helped supply the Qing military forces during the anti-Dzungar campaign.[22][23][24] The Qing employed Khoja Emin in its campaign against the Dzungars and used him as an intermediary with Muslims from the Tarim Basin to inform them that the Qing were only aiming to kill Dzungars and that they would leave the Muslims alone, and also to convince them to kill the Dzungars themselves and side with the Qing since the Qing noted the Muslims' resentment of their former experience under Dzungar rule at the hands ofTsewang Araptan.[25]
It was not until generations later that Dzungaria rebounded from the destruction and near liquidation of the Dzungars after the mass slayings of nearly a million Dzungars.[26] HistorianPeter Perdue has shown that the decimation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor,[27] Perdue attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to a "deliberate use of massacre" and has described it as an "ethnic genocide".[28] Although this "deliberate use of massacre" has been largely ignored by modern scholars,[27] Dr. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide,[29] has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence".[30]
The Qing "final solution" of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungars made the Qing-sponsored settlement of millions of Han, Hui,Turkestani Oasis people (Uyghurs) and Manchu Bannermen inDzungaria possible, since the land was now devoid of Dzungars.[27] TheDzungarian basin, which used to be inhabited by Dzungars is currently inhabited by Kazakhs.[31] In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui, Uyghur, Xibe, and Kazakh colonists after they exterminated the Dzungar Oirat Mongols in the region, with one-third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern are, while around two-thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.[32] In Dzungaria, the Qing established new cities like Ürümqi and Yining.[33] The Qing were the ones who unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic situation.[34]
The depopulation of northernXinjiang after theBuddhist Oirats were slaughtered, led to the Qing settlingManchu, Sibo (Xibe),Daurs (a sub-Mongolic people),Solons, Han Chinese, Hui Muslims, and Turkic Muslim Taranchis in the north, withHan Chinese andHui migrants making up the greatest number of settlers. Since it was the crushing of the Buddhist Öölöd (Dzungars) by the Qing which led to the promotion of Islam and the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, and migration of MuslimTaranchis to northern Xinjiang, it was proposed by Henry Schwarz that "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam".[35] Xinjiang was a unified defined geographic identity created and developed by the Qing. It was the Qing who led toTurkic Muslim power in the region increasing since the Mongol power was crushed by the Qing while Turkic Muslim culture and identity were tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.[36]
The Qianlong Emperor explicitly commemorated the Qing conquest of the Dzungars as having reclaimed former territory in Xinjiang for "China", defining China as a multi-ethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han areas in "China proper", meaning that according to the Qing, both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", which included Xinjiang which the Qing conquered from the Dzungars.[37] After the Qing were done conquering Dzungaria in 1759, they proclaimed that the new land which formerly belonged to the Dzungars was now absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial.[38][39][40] The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Inner Mongols, Eastern Mongols,Oirat Mongols, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family" united in the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" 中外一家 or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" 內外一家 ("interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples.[41] In the Manchu officialTulisen's Manchu languageaccount of his meeting with theTorghut leaderAyuka Khan, it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun 中國, Zhongguo) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus.[42]
The Inner MongolianChahar leaderLigdan Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of smallpox in 1634. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his sonEjei Khan surrendered to the Qing and was given the title of Prince (Qin Wang, 親王), and Inner Mongolian nobility became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrested in 1669 inShenyang and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai then bid his time and then he and his brother Lubuzung revolted against the Qing in 1675 during theRevolt of the Three Feudatories, with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing then crushed the rebels in a battle on April 20, 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy.
Ordinary Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues. During the eighteenth century, growing numbers ofHan Chinese settlers had illegally begun to move into the Inner Mongolian steppe. By 1791 there had been so many Han Chinese settlers in theFront Gorlos Banner that the jasak had petitioned the Qing government to legalize the status of the peasants who had already settled there.[43]The first half of the 19th century saw the heyday of the Qing order. Both Inner and Outer Mongolia continued to supply the Qing armies withcavalry, although the government had tried to keep the Outer Mongols apart from the empire'swars in that century. Since the dynasty placed the Mongols well under its control, the government no longer feared them. At the same time, as the rulingManchus had become increasinglysinicized and population pressure inChina proper emerged, the dynasty began to abandon its earlier attempts to block Han Chinese trade penetration and settlement in thesteppe. After all, Han Chinese economic penetration served the dynasty's interests, because it not only provided support of the government's Mongolian administrative apparatus but also bound the Mongols more tightly to the rest of the empire. The Qing administrators, increasing in league with Han Chinese trading firms, solidly supported Chinesecommerce. There was little that ordinary Mongols, who remained in the banners and continued their lives as herdsmen, could do to protect themselves against the growing exactions that banner princes, monasteries, and Han creditors imposed upon them, and ordinary herdsmen had little resource against exorbitanttaxation and levies. In the 19th century,agriculture had been spread in the steppe andpastureland was increasingly converted to agricultural use. Even during the 18th century a growing number of Han settlers had already illegally begun to move into the Inner Mongolian steppe and to lease land from monasteries and banner princes, slowly diminishing the grazing areas for the Mongols' livestock. While the alienation of pasture in this way was largely illegal, the practice continued unchecked. By 1852, Han Chinese merchants had deeply penetrated Inner Mongolia, and the Mongols had run up unpayabledebts. The monasteries had taken over substantial grazing lands, andmonasteries,merchants and banner princes had leased many pasture lands to Han Chinese asfarmland, although there was also popular resentment against oppressive taxation, Han usurpers, shrinkage of pasture, as well as debts and abuse of the banner princes' authority. Northern parts of what are today'sChinese provinces ofShaanxi,Shanxi andHebei were ethnically cleansed of Mongols, with the erasing of nomadic minorities legacies in these regions so as to dispel the notion of borderlands as traditionally Mongolian inhabited. Increasingly during the nineteenth century, theManchurians were becoming increasinglysinicized themselves, and faced with the Russian threat, they began to encourage Han Chinese farmers to settle in both Mongoliaand Manchuria. This policy was followed by subsequent governments. The railroads that were being built in these regions were especially useful to the Han Chinese settlers. Land was either sold by Mongol Princes, or leased to Han Chinese farmers, or simply taken away from the nomads and given to Han Chinese farmers. Many impoverished Mongols also began to take up farming in the steppe, renting farmlands from their banner princes or from Han merchantlandlords who had acquired them for agriculture as settlement for debts. Qing rule with tacit continuous Han illegal settlement over the 18th and 19th centuries, had led to a wave of incidents culminating in Mongol ethnic cleansing and displacement.
All these incidents culminated in theJindandao Incident, where an ethnic Han Chinese secret society called Jindandao (金丹道) rose up and revolted inInner Mongolia in November 1891. The Chinese rebels massacred 150,000 Mongols and destroyed many Mongol lama temples before being suppressed by government forces in late December.[44] The outbreak of the rebellion took place in November, 1891 when rebels attacked the government office of theAukhan Banner. They slaughtered thejasagh (head) of the banner, Prince Daghchin, who was concurrently the head of the Juu Uda League, and vandalized his ancestral tomb. They quickly rampaged southward into theOngniud banners (and Chifeng County within them), and then into theKharachin Left Banner. Around the same time, another group of rebels captured Chaoyang County within theTümed Right Banner, the Josutu League. They moved into the neighboringTümed banner and twoKharachin banners while annihilating Mongol communities.[44] They openly employed anti-Mongol and anti-dynastic slogans including "Defeat the Qing and wipe of the Mongols" (平清掃胡) and "Kill Mongols in revenge" (仇殺蒙古).[45] The Jindandao devastated Mongol communities in the southeastern borderland and forced many Mongols to take refuge in northernbanners.[45] Anyway, the Qing attitude towardsHan Chinese colonization of Mongolian lands grew more and more favourable under pressure of events, particularly after theAmur Annexation byRussia in 1860. This would reach a peak during the early 20th century, under the name ofxinzheng or "New Administration". Several NGO andhuman rights groups monitor happening in the autonomous region today.
During theCultural Revolution, Mongolseparatist political parties and ethnic Mongols were targeted and killed by the Red Guards throughout inner Mongolia, at least 346,000 ethnic Mongols were arrested of which at least 27,900 of them were officially executed and another 120,000 were crippled. An even larger number of ethnic Mongols were tortured or beaten to death, died of sexual violence, worked to death inlabour camps or committed suicide, but were unrecorded. Recent researchers estimate that the Red Guards killed about 100,000 to 300,000 Mongols during the Cultural Revolution.[46]
Traditional Mongol lands within the PRC extend further than Inner Mongolia, often up to theold Ming border and further south and west in places likeGansu,Xinjiang the Datong area ofShaanxi andKalgan. There are also remnants ofMöngke Khan's grand army inSichuan andYunnan, yet little recognition of the Mongol legacy in these areas.[47] There has beenriots over what has been perceived by ethnic Mongols of increasing marginalisation by Han Chinese andcultural appropriation disputes over hotpot andthroat singing[48][49][50] There has been continuing efforts by the CPC to dispel separatism and notions ofPan-Mongolism between the indigenous Mongols of China, with otherMongol groups.[51][52]
The use of the term "Mongoloid" as a pejorative still pervades many cultures today, with stereotypes of Mongolians as superstitiousalcoholics.[53]Mongoloid is also used as a highly offensive slur against people withDown syndrome.[54][55][56][57] Perhaps the image of Mongolians being barbaric or underdeveloped has pervaded in part to their nomadic lifestyle which has survived partly into modernity.[58] Mongolic peoples have also received prejudice over the ages for their practice oftraditional customs and Shamanism as backwards or paganistic, along with their historical willingness to embrace multiple faiths at the same time.[59]
