Anti-Federalist Papers is the collective name given to the works written by theFounding Fathers who were opposed to, or concerned with, the merits of theUnited States Constitution of 1787. Starting on 25 September 1787 (eight days after the final draft of the US Constitution) and running through the early 1790s, theseAnti-Federalists published a series of essays arguing against the ratification of the new Constitution.^[1] They argued against the implementation of a strongerfederal government without protections on certain rights. The Anti-Federalist papers failed to halt the ratification of the Constitution but they succeeded in influencing thefirst assembly of the United States Congress to draft theBill of Rights.^[2] These works were authored primarily byanonymous contributors usingpseudonyms such as "Brutus" and the "Federal Farmer." Unlike the Federalists, the Anti-Federalists created their works as part of an unorganized group.^[3]

Following its victory against the British in theRevolutionary War, the United States was plagued by a variety of internal problems. The weak central government could not raise taxes to cover war debts and was largely unable to pass legislation. Many early American politicians and thinkers believed that these issues were the result of theArticles of Confederation, the first governing document of the United States.^[4] In 1787 aconvention gathered in Philadelphia to attempt to amend it. Soon, however, the gathering shifted its focus to constructing a newer and more powerful Constitution for the fledgling country. Two main competing factions emerged, theFederalists and theAnti-Federalists. The former supported a more powerful central government while the latter opposed it.

During the lengthy and heated national debate following this convention, both groups wrote extensively in favor of their respective positions. The Anti-Federalist papers are a selection of the written arguments against the US Constitution by those known to posterity as the Anti-Federalists. As withthe Federalist papers, these essays were originally published in newspapers. One of the most widely known are "a series of sixteen essays published in theNew York Journal from October 1787 through April 1788 under the pseudonym 'Brutus'" (Melancton Smith).^[5][6]

The Anti-Federalist papers were written over a number of years and by a variety of authors who utilized pen names to remain anonymous, and debates over authorship continue to this day. Unlike the authors ofThe Federalist Papers, a group of three men working closely together, the authors of the Anti-Federalist papers were not engaged in an organized project. Thus, in contrast to the pro-Constitution advocates, there was no one book or collection of Anti-Federalist Papers at the time. The essays were the product of a vast number of authors, working individually rather than as a group.^[7] Although there is no canonical list of Anti-Federalist authors, major authors includeCato (likelyGeorge Clinton),Brutus (likely eitherMelancton Smith,Robert Yates or perhapsJohn Williams), Centinel (Samuel Bryan), and the Federal Farmer (Elbridge Gerry^[8][9][10], although previously thought to be Melancton Smith,Richard Henry Lee, or Mercy Otis Warren. Works byPatrick Henry and a variety of others are often included as well.

Until the mid-20th century, there was no united series of Anti-Federalist papers. The first major collection was compiled by Morton Borden, a professor at Columbia University, in 1965. He "collected 85 of the most significant papers and arranged them in an order closely resembling that of the 85 Federalist Papers". The most frequently cited contemporary collection,The Complete Anti-Federalist, was compiled by Herbert Storing and Murray Dry of theUniversity of Chicago and published in 1981. At seven volumes and including many pamphlets and other materials not previously published in a collection, this work is considered, by many, to be the authoritative compendium on the publications.^[11]

Considering their number and diversity, it is difficult to summarize the contents of the Anti-Federalist papers. Generally speaking they reflected the sentiments of the Anti-Federalists, whichAkhil Reed Amar of the Yale Law School generalized as: a localist fear of a powerful central government, a belief in the necessity of direct citizen participation in democracy, and a distrust of wealthy merchants and industrialists.^[12] Essays with titles such as "A Dangerous Plan of Benefit Only to The 'Aristocratick Combination'" and "New Constitution Creates a National Government; Will Not Abate Foreign Influence; Dangers of Civil War And Despotism" fill the collection, and reflect the strong feelings of the authors.

In the table below, a selection of Anti-Federalist papers have been contrasted with their Federalist counterparts.^[13]

The Anti-Federalists proved unable to stop theratification of theUS Constitution, which took effect in 1789. Since then, the essays they wrote have largely fallen into obscurity.^[14] The influence of their writing, however, can be seen to this day – particularly in the nature and shape of theUnited States Bill of Rights.Federalists, such asAlexander Hamilton, vigorously argued against its passage but were in the end forced to compromise.

TheMassachusetts Compromise took place during the ratification process after 5 states had already ratified. Despite being the minority power, Anti-Federalists were able to create enough stir to preventMassachusetts from ratifying the newly draftedConstitution. They agreed that there would need to at least be amendments made before their state would ratify the Constitution, leading to the beginning of theUnited States Bill of Rights.^[15] Other states with strong Anti-Federalist populations would follow this example, expanding this list of amendments to the first 10. The Bill of Rights was constructed specifically to quell the fears of the Anti-Federalists and to address their concerns. The Anti-Federalists feared that there were not enoughchecks and balances to protect the citizens from a governmental abuse of power. As such, the Anti-Federalists focused on explicitly listing out the individuals' rights and freedoms including free practice ofreligion,press,legal rights, andarms for protection from both their fellow man and government military occupation like what they faced during theRevolution. To prevent the federal government from assuming all unspecified powers, as the Anti-Federalists feared, the10th and final Amendment in the Bill of Rights states that all powers not specified in the Constitution would be left to the States. TheseStates' Rights would be a cornerstone issue for the entirety of United States history, from thetreatment and freeing of slaves to themodern-day healthcare systems. The Anti-Federalists were not successful in stopping the ratification of the Constitution, but their actions still impact theFederal Government centuries after the writers of the Anti-Federalist papers are gone.^[16]

• Bibliography of the United States Constitution
• Anti-Federalists
• The Complete Anti-Federalist
• The Federalist Papers
• States' Rights
• Letters of Centinel
• List of pseudonyms used in the American Constitutional debates

• The Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution, Vols. XIII–XVI. Ed. John P. Kaminski and Gaspare J. Saladino. Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1981.
• The Anti-Federalist Papers. Morton Borden. Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1965.

• The Anti-Federalist Papers public domain audiobook atLibriVox
• Federalist No. 1–10 | Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, James Madison

• Anti-Federalist Papers
• 1787 essays
• Ratification of the United States Constitution
• The Federalist Papers
• Works published under a pseudonym

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