Ananimated cartoon or simplycartoon is an animated film, usually short, featuring an exaggerated visual style. The style takes inspiration fromcomic strips,gag cartoons, and other non-animated or stillcartoons. It often featuresanthropomorphic animals,superheroes, or the adventures of human protagonists. Especially with animals that form a natural predator/prey relationship (e.g. cats and mice, coyotes and birds), the action often centers onviolentpratfalls such as falls, collisions, and explosions that would be lethal in real life as well. During in the 1980s, "cartoon" was shortened totoon, referring to characters in animated productions. This term was first popularized in 1988 by the combined live-action/animated filmWho Framed Roger Rabbit, which introduced ToonTown, a world inhabited by animated characters, followed in 1990 by the animated TV cartoon seriesTiny Toon Adventures, which embraced the classic cartoon spirit with a new generation of characters.
The illusion of animation—as in motion pictures in general—has traditionally been attributed to thepersistence of vision and later to thephi phenomenon andbeta movement, but the exact neurological causes are still uncertain. The illusion of motion caused by a rapid succession of images that minimally differ from each other, with unnoticeable interruptions, is astroboscopic effect. Whileanimators traditionally used to draw each part of the movements and changes of figures on transparent cels that could be moved over a separate background, computer animation is usually based on programming paths betweenkey frames to maneuver digitally created figures throughout a digitally created environment.
The physical movement of image parts through simple mechanics—for instance, moving images inmagic lantern shows—can also be considered animation. The mechanical manipulation of three-dimensional puppets and objects to emulate living beings has a very long history inautomata. Electronic automata were popularized byDisney asanimatronics.
The wordanimation comes to the Latin wordanimātiō, meaning 'bestowing of life'.[2] The earlier meaning of the English word is 'liveliness' and has been in use much longer than the meaning of 'moving image medium'.
Prof. Stampfers Stroboscopische Scheibe No. X (1833)A projectingpraxinoscope, from 1882, here shown superimposing an animated figure on a separately projected background sceneFantasmagorie (1908) byÉmile Cohl
Long before modern animation began, audiences around the world were captivated by the magic of moving characters. For centuries, master artists and craftsmen have brought puppets,automatons,shadow puppets, and fantasticallanterns to life, inspiring the imagination through physically manipulated wonders.[3]
Whencinematography eventually broke through in the 1890s, the wonder of the realistic details in the new medium was seen as its biggest accomplishment. It took years before animation found its way to the cinemas. The successful shortThe Haunted Hotel (1907) byJ. Stuart Blackton popularizedstop motion and reportedly inspiredÉmile Cohl to createFantasmagorie (1908), regarded as the oldest known example of a completetraditional (hand-drawn) animation on standard cinematographic film. Other great artistic and very influential short films were created byLadislas Starevich with his puppet animations since 1910 and byWinsor McCay with detailed hand-drawn animation in films such asLittle Nemo (1911) andGertie the Dinosaur (1914).[4]
During the 1910s, the production of animated "cartoons" became an industry in the US.[5] Successful producerJohn Randolph Bray and animatorEarl Hurd, patented thecel animation process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the century.[6][7]Felix the Cat, who debuted in 1919, became the first fully realized anthropomorphic animal character in the history of American animation.[8]
In 1928,Steamboat Willie, featuringMickey Mouse andMinnie Mouse, popularized film-with-synchronized-sound and putWalt Disney's studio at the forefront of the animation industry. AlthoughDisney Animation's actual output relative to total global animation output has always been very small, the studio has overwhelmingly dominated the "aesthetic norms" of animation ever since.[9]
Italian-Argentine cartoonistQuirino Cristiani showing the cut and articulated figure of his satirical characterEl Peludo (based on PresidentYrigoyen) patented in 1916 for the realization of his films, including the world's first animated feature filmEl Apóstol[11]
In 1917, Italian-Argentine directorQuirino Cristiani made the first feature-length filmEl Apóstol (nowlost), which became a critical and commercial success. It was followed by Cristiani'sSin dejar rastros in 1918, but one day after its premiere, the film was confiscated by the government.[12]
In 1937,Walt Disney Studios premiered their first animated featureSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs, still one of the highest-grossing traditional animation features as of May 2020[update].[14][15] The Fleischer studios followed this example in 1939 withGulliver's Travels with some success. Partly due to foreign markets being cut off by the Second World War, Disney's next featuresPinocchio,Fantasia (both 1940), Fleischer Studios' second animated featureMr. Bug Goes to Town (1941–1942) and Disney's feature filmsCinderella (1950),Alice in Wonderland (1951) andLady and the Tramp (1955) failed at the box office. For several decades, Disney was the only American studio to regularly produce animated features, untilRalph Bakshi became the first to release more than a handful of features.Sullivan-Bluth Studios began to regularly produce animated features starting withAn American Tail in 1986.[16]
Although relatively few titles became as successful as Disney's features, other countries developed their own animation industries that produced both short and feature theatrical animations in a wide variety of styles, relatively often includingstop motion andcutout animation techniques. SovietSoyuzmultfilm animation studio, founded in 1936, produced 20 films (including shorts) per year on average and reached 1,582 titles in 2018. China, Czechoslovakia / Czech Republic, Italy, France, and Belgium were other countries that more than occasionally released feature films, while Japan became a true powerhouse of animation production, with its own recognizable and influentialanime style of effectivelimited animation.[citation needed]
Animation became very popular on television since the 1950s, when television sets started to become common in most developed countries. Cartoons were mainly programmed for children, on convenient time slots, and especially US youth spent many hours watchingSaturday-morning cartoons. Many classic cartoons found a new life on the small screen and by the end of the 1950s, the production of new animated cartoons started to shift from theatrical releases to TV series.Hanna-Barbera Productions was especially prolific and had huge hit series, such asThe Flintstones (1960–1966) (the firstprime time animated series),Scooby-Doo (since 1969) and Belgian co-productionThe Smurfs (1981–1989). The constraints of American television programming and the demand for an enormous quantity resulted in cheaper and quickerlimited animation methods and much more formulaic scripts. Quality dwindled until more daring animation surfaced in the late 1980s and in the early 1990s with hit series, the first cartoon ofThe Simpsons (1987), which later developed intoits own show (in 1989) andSpongeBob SquarePants (since 1999) as part of a "renaissance" of American animation.[citation needed]
While US animated series also spawned successes internationally, many other countries produced their own child-oriented programming, relatively often preferringstop motion andpuppetry over cel animation. Japaneseanime TV series became very successful internationally since the 1960s, and European producers looking for affordable cel animators relatively often started co-productions with Japanese studios, resulting in hit series such asBarbapapa (The Netherlands/Japan/France 1973–1977),Wickie und die starken Männer/小さなバイキング ビッケ (Vicky the Viking) (Austria/Germany/Japan 1974),Maya the Honey Bee (Japan/Germany 1975) andThe Jungle Book (Italy/Japan 1989).[citation needed]
Computer animation was gradually developed since the 1940s. 3D wireframe animation started popping up in the mainstream in the 1970s, with an early (short) appearance in the sci-fi thrillerFutureworld (1976).[17]
The so-called 3D style, more often associated with computer animation, became the dominant technique following the success of Pixar'sToy Story (1995), the first computer-animated feature in this style.[22]
Most of the cel animation studios switched to producing mostly computer-animated films around the 1990s, as it proved cheaper and more profitable. Not only the very popular 3D animation style was generated with computers, but also most of the films and series with a more traditional hand-crafted appearance, in which the charming characteristics of cel animation could be emulated with software, while new digital tools helped developing new styles and effects.[23][24][25][26][27][28]
In 2010, the animation market was estimated to be worth circa US$80 billion.[29] By 2021, the value had increased to an estimated US$370 billion.[30] Animated feature-length films returned the highestgross margins (around 52%) of allfilm genres between 2004 and 2013.[31] Animation as an art and industry continues to thrive as of the early 2020s.[32][33][34]
The clarity of animation makes it a powerful tool for instruction, while its total malleability also allows exaggeration that can be employed to convey strong emotions and to thwart reality. It has therefore been widely used for other purposes than mere entertainment.[35]
During World War II, animation was widely exploited for propaganda.Many American studios, including Warner Bros. and Disney, lent their talents and their cartoon characters to convey to the public certain war values. These efforts extended to other countries well into theCold War era, particularly as it pertained to "combatting" communism. For example, the English1954 adaptation ofGeorge Orwell'sAnimal Farm (the nation's first feature-length animated film) is speculated to have had its production funded by the CIA.[36][37]
Animation has been very popular in television commercials, both due to its graphic appeal, and the humour it can provide. Some animated characters in commercials have survived for decades, such asSnap, Crackle and Pop in advertisements for Kellogg's cereals.[38]Tex Avery was the producer of the firstRaid "Kills Bugs Dead" commercials in 1966, which were very successful for the company.[39]
Apart from their success in movie theaters and television series, many cartoon characters would also prove lucrative when licensed for all kinds of merchandise and for other media.
Animation has traditionally been very closely related tocomic books. While many comic book characters found their way to the screen (which is often the case in Japan, where manymanga are adapted intoanime), original animated characters also commonly appear in comic books and magazines. Somewhat similarly, characters and plots forvideo games (an interactive form of animation that became its own medium) have been derived from films and vice versa.[40]
Some of the original content produced for the screen can be used and marketed in other media. Stories and images can easily be adapted into children's books and other printed media. Songs and music have appeared on records and as streaming media.[citation needed]
Disneyland opened in 1955 and features many attractions that were based on Disney's cartoon characters. Its enormous success spawned several otherDisney theme parks and resorts.Disney's earnings from the theme parks have relatively often been higher than those from their movies.
As with any other form of media, animation has instituted awards for excellence in the field. Many are part of general or regional film award programs, like the China'sGolden Rooster Award forBest Animation (since 1981). Awards programs dedicated to animation, with many categories, includeASIFA-Hollywood'sAnnie Awards, theEmile Awards in Europe and theAnima Mundi awards in Brazil.[42][43][44]
Beauty and the Beast was the first animated film nominated forBest Picture, in 1991.Up (2009) andToy Story 3 (2010) also received Best Picture nominations, after the academy expanded the number of nominees from five to ten.[45]
The creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e., longer than a few seconds) has developed as a form offilmmaking, with certain unique aspects.[46] Traits common to both live-action and animatedfeature films are labor intensity and high production costs.[47]
The most important difference is that once a film is in the production phase, themarginal cost of one more shot is higher for animated films than live-action films.[48] It is relatively easy for a director to ask for one moretake duringprincipal photography of a live-action film, but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by animators (although the task of rendering slightly different takes has been made less tedious by modern computer animation).[49] It is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of the film.[50] Thus, animation studios starting with Disney began the practice in the 1930s of maintaining story departments wherestoryboard artists develop every single scene throughstoryboards, then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes make sense as a whole.[51] While live-action films are now also storyboarded, they enjoy more latitude to depart from storyboards (i.e., real-time improvisation).[citation needed][52]
Another problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists, necessarily have individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style is employed on a particular film.[53][54] Since the early 1980s, teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators, typically have created feature-length animated films. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles; synchronizing those of dozens of artists is more difficult.[55]
This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before the animation begins.[53] While animators must "sacrifice their personal drawing styles so that the work of many hands appears to be that of one", visual development artists are allowed to "create new worlds, new characters, and new entertainment possibilities in their own individualistic graphic styles".[53] Character designers on the visual development team drawmodel sheets to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles.[56][57] On traditionally animated projects,maquettes were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles.[56][58]
Unlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the film.[59][60] The traditional approach worked for several decades because prior to the 1960s, no one except Disney was attempting to regularly produce feature-length animated films.[60] All other animation studios, with occasional exceptions, were producingshort films only a few minutes in length.[60] For short films, it was enough for the storyboard artists to work up a fewvisual gags and then string them together to form a crude plot.[60]
In 1960,Hanna-Barbera pioneered the longeranimated sitcom format for television withThe Flintstones.[60] Hanna-Barbera and the other early television animation studios soon discovered that storyboarding was far too inefficient to fill up a half-hour episode on the extremely tight budgets typical of television.[60] During the 1960s, these studios experimented with a more efficient method for developing story material: ascreenwriter is hired to draft a writtenscreenplay which is approved and handed over to the storyboard artists for storyboarding.[60] This method creates significant tension between screenwriters and storyboard artists, in that some artists feel that people who cannot draw should not be writing for animation, while some writers feel that artists do not understand how to write.[60] Despite that tension, it has become and remains the dominant method by which animation studios develop both feature-length films and television shows.[60]
Traditional animation (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) is the process that was used for most animated films of the 20th century.[61] The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper.[62] To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets calledcels,[63] which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings.[64] The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by arostrum camera onto motion picture film.[65]
The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. In modern traditionally animated films, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system.[1][66] Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects.[67] The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional35 mm film and newer media withdigital video.[1][68] The "look" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and thecharacter animators' work has remained essentially the same over the past 90 years.[58] Some animation producers have used the term "tradigital" (a play on the words "traditional" and "digital") to describe cel animation that uses significant computer technology.
Full animation is the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement,[71] having a smooth animation.[72] Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works like those produced by theWalt Disney studio (The Little Mermaid,Beauty and the Beast,Aladdin,The Lion King) to the more 'cartoon' styles of theWarner Bros. animation studio. Many of theDisney animated features are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works,The Secret of NIMH (US, 1982),The Iron Giant (US, 1999), andNocturna (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are often animated on "twos", sometimes on "ones", which means that 12 to 24 drawings are required for a single second of film.[73]
Limited animation involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or "skippy" movement animation.[74] Limited animation uses fewer drawings per second, thereby limiting the fluidity of the animation. This is a more economic technique. Pioneered by the artists at the American studioUnited Productions of America,[75] limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as inGerald McBoing-Boing (US, 1951),Yellow Submarine (UK, 1968), and certainanime produced in Japan.[76] Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of Hanna-Barbera,[77]Filmation,[78] and other TV animation studios[79]) and later theInternet (web cartoons).
Stop motion is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement.[84] There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the materials used to create the animation.[85] Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; traditional stop-motion animation is usually less expensive but more time-consuming to produce than current computer animation.[85]
Typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation.[86] The puppets generally have anarmature inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to particular joints.[87] Examples includeThe Tale of the Fox (France, 1937),The Nightmare Before Christmas (US, 1993),Corpse Bride (US, 2005),Coraline (US, 2009), the films ofJiří Trnka and the adult animated sketch-comedy television seriesRobot Chicken (US, 2005–present).
Created using techniques developed byGeorge Pal,[88] are puppet-animated films that typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames, rather than manipulating one existing puppet.[89]
A clay animation scene from aFinnish television commercial
Most commonly a form of clay animation in which a long bread-like "loaf" of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within.[93]
A type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth.[94] Examples includeTerry Gilliam's animated sequences fromMonty Python's Flying Circus (UK, 1969–1974);Fantastic Planet (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973);Tale of Tales (Russia, 1979),Matt Stone andTrey Parker the first cutout animationSouth Park (1992), the pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) ofSouth Park (US, 1997) and the music video Live for the moment, from Verona Riots band (produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014).
Stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world.[96] Intercutting,matte effects and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings.[97] Examples include the work ofRay Harryhausen, as seen in films,Jason and the Argonauts (1963),[98] and the work ofWillis H. O'Brien on films,King Kong (1933).
Uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper clippings, magazines, etc.), which are sometimes manipulated frame by frame to create movement.[103] At other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action.
A subgenre of object animation involving usingLego or other similar brick toys to make an animation.[104][105] These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites,YouTube and the availability of cheap cameras andanimation software.[106]
Involves the use of live humans as stop-motion characters.[107] This allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other effects.[107] Examples of pixilation includeThe Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb andAngry Kid shorts, and theAcademy Award-winningNeighbours byNorman McLaren.
Computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer.[67][108] 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact.[109] 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer.[110]
Final lineadvection animation is a technique used in 2D animation,[115] to give artists and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department.[116] Speaking about using this approach inPaperman, John Kahrs said that "Our animators can change things, actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want, and change the profile of the arm."[117]
When working with game animations,skeletal 2D animations are commonly created using tools like Spine, DragonBones, Blender COA Tools, Rive, and the built-in Unity editor. The primary benefit of this approach is the ability to reuse images, which reduces the amount of graphics stored in RAM. This principle of maximizing resource efficiency means that by reusing existing elements, you can enhance the visual appeal of animations without needing to create additional graphics.[118]
3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The 3D model maker usually starts by creating a 3Dpolygon mesh for the animator to manipulate.[119] A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment.[119] Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called anarmature that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices.[120][121] This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction withkey frames to create movement.[122]
Other techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, and effects, fire andwater simulations.[123] These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics.[124]
Machinima – Films created by screen capturing in video games and virtual worlds. The term originated from the software introduction in the 1980sdemoscene, as well as the 1990s recordings of thefirst-person shooter video gameQuake.
Computer animation is used primarily for animation that attempts to resemble real life while having a stylized cartoonish appearance, using advanced rendering that mimics in detail skin, plants, water, fire, clouds, etc.[128] Examples includeUp (2009, US),How to Train Your Dragon (2010, US)
Animatronics is the use ofmechatronics to create machines that seem animate rather than robotic.
Audio-Animatronics is a form ofrobotics animation, combined with 3-D animation, created byWalt Disney Imagineering for shows and attractions at Disney theme parks move and make noise (generally a recorded speech or song).[130] They are fixed to whatever supports them. They can sit and stand, and they cannot walk. An Audio-Animatron is different from anandroid-type robot in that it uses prerecorded movements and sounds, rather than responding to external stimuli. In 2009, Disney created an interactive version of the technology called Autonomatronics.[131]
Linear Animation Generator is a form of animation by using static picture frames installed in a tunnel or a shaft. The animation illusion is created by putting the viewer in a linear motion, parallel to the installed picture frames.[132]
Chuckimation is a type of animation created by the makers of the television seriesAction League Now! in which characters/props are thrown, or chucked from off camera or wiggled around to simulate talking by unseen hands.[133]
Themagic lantern used mechanical slides to project moving images.Christiaan Huygens was thought to have invented the magic lantern in the mid-1600s.[134]
Musical fountain: ahydrautechnical show that includes water and lights, nowadays often combined with lasers and high-definition projections on mist screens.[135]
Erasure animation: a technique using traditional 2D media, photographed over time as the artist manipulates the image. For example,William Kentridge is famous for hischarcoal erasure films,[139] andPiotr Dumała for his auteur technique of animating scratches on plaster.[140]
Pinscreen animation: makes use of a screen filled with movable pins that can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen.[141] The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation.[142]
Sand animation: sand is moved around on a back- or front-lighted piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film.[143] This creates an interesting effect when animated because of the lightcontrast.[144]
Flip book: a flip book (sometimes, especially in British English, called a flick book) is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next, so that when the pages are turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change.[145][146] Flip books are often illustrated books for children,[147] they also are geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. Flip books are not always separate books, they appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines, often in the page corners.[145] Software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books.[148]
2.5D Animation: A mix of 2D and 3D animation elements that emphasize the illusion of depth utilizing the pseudo-3D effect.[149] During the 1970s, the term "2.5D" started to gain recognition.[150] But its background comes from anime and manga during the 1920s where theatrical stage productions were popular.[151] Stage adaptations of well-liked anime series featured live performances by voice actors called 2.5D.[150]
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