Anglican doctrine (also calledEpiscopal doctrine in some countries) is the body of Christian teachings used to guide the religious and moral practices ofAnglicanism.[1]
Thomas Cranmer, the guiding Reformer that led to the development of Anglicanism as a distinct tradition under theEnglish Reformation, compiled the originalBook of Common Prayer, which forms the basis of Anglican worship and practice.[2][1] By 1571 it included theThirty-nine Articles, the historic doctrinal statement of theChurch of England.[1]The Books of Homilies explicates the foundational teachings of Anglican Christianity, also compiled under the auspices of Archbishop Cranmer.[1]Richard Hooker and theCaroline divines later developed Anglican doctrine of religious authority as being derived from scripture, tradition, and "redeemed" reason; Anglicans affirmed theprimacy of scriptural revelation (prima scriptura), informed by theChurch fathers, the historicNicene,Apostles andAthanasian creeds, and a latitudinarian interpretation ofscholasticism.Charles Simeon espoused and popularised evangelicalReformed positions in the 18th and 19th centuries, while theOxford Movement re-introducedmonasticism,religious orders and various other pre-Reformation practices and beliefs in the 19th century.
Anglicanism historically developed asvia media between two branches of Protestantism—Lutheranism andCalvinism—though closer to the latter than the former.[3][4] Its identity has affirmed to beReformed andCatholic.[3]
Over time, the tension betweencatholicity andPuritanism resulted in alatitudinarian or "broad church" mainstream, within alow church tohigh church spectrum of sanctioned approaches to ritual and tolerance of the associated beliefs.Evangelicals (low church) andAnglo Catholics (high church) represent the far ends of this spectrum, with most Anglicans falling somewhere inbetween. Theologically, the Anglican Communion includesReformed Anglicanism, with a smaller number ofArminian Anglicans.[5]
There are two streams informing doctrinal development and understanding in Anglicanism. The first of these includes the historic formularies of Anglicanism.[4] Historical formularies of Anglicanism includeBooks of Common Prayer,ordinals and the "standard divines". Most prominent of the historical formularies are theThirty-Nine Articles of Religion, principally authored byThomas Cranmer.[1] These are divided into four sections, moving from the general (the fundamentals of the faith) to the particular (the interpretation of scripture, the structure and authority of the church, and the relationship between church and society). Other significant formularies includeThe Books of Homilies, listed in Article XXXV in the Articles of Religion; this explicates the theology of historic Anglicanism.[1]
Some Anglicans also take the principle oflex orandi, lex credendi seriously, regarding the content, form and rubrics ofliturgy as an important element of doctrinal understanding, development and interpretation. Secondly, Anglicans cite the work of the standard divines, or foundational theologians, of Anglicanism as instructive. Such divines includeCranmer,Richard Hooker,Matthew Parker,John Ponet,Lancelot Andrewes andJohn Jewel.
Anglican doctrine affirms the three major creeds of the earlyecumenical councils (theApostles',Nicene andAthanasian creeds), the principles enshrined in the "Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral" and the dispersed authority of the fourinstruments of Communion of theAnglican Communion.
The second stream of doctrine is contained in the formally adopted doctrinal positions of the constitutions andcanon law of various national churches and provinces of the Anglican Communion. These are usually formulated bygeneral synods of national or regional churches and interpreted and enforced by abishop-in-council structure, involving consultation between the bishops and delegated lay and clerical leadership, although the extent of the devolution of authority from the bishops varies from place to place. This stream is the only binding and enforceable expression of doctrine in Anglicanism, which can sometimes result in conflicting doctrinal understandings between and within national churches and provinces.
The foundations and streams of doctrine are interpreted through the lenses of variousChristian movements which have gained wide acceptance amongclergy andlaity. Prominent among those in the latter part of the 20th century and the early 21st century areLiberal Christianity,Anglo-Catholicism andEvangelicalism, which includesReformed Anglicanism, along with a smaller number ofArminian Anglicans (though a number of them became a partMethodism).[5] These perspectives emphasise or supplement particular aspects of historical theological writings, canon law, formularies and prayer books. Because of this, these perspectives often conflict with each other and can conflict with the formal doctrines. Some of these differences help to define "parties" or "factions" within Anglicanism. However, with certain notable exceptions that led toschisms, Anglicans have grown a tradition of tolerating internal differences. This tradition of tolerance is sometimes known as "comprehensiveness".
Anglican doctrine emerged from the interweaving of two main strands ofChristian doctrine during theEnglish Reformation in the 16th and 17th centuries. The first strand comes from theCatholic doctrine taught by the established church in England in the early 16th century. The second strand represents a range ofReformedProtestant teachings brought to England from neighbouring countries in the same period, notablyCalvinism[Note 1] andLutheranism.[3]
Anglican doctrine is often said to be bothReformed andCatholic.[3] At the time of theEnglish Reformation, the Church of England formed the local expression of the institutionalRoman Catholic Church in England.Canon law had documented the formal doctrines over the centuries and the Church of England still follows an unbroken tradition of canon law today[update]. The English Reformation did not dispense with all previous doctrines. The church not only retained the core Catholic beliefs common to Reformed doctrine in general, such as theTrinity, the virginal conception of Mary, the nature of Jesus as fully human and divine, theresurrection of Jesus,original sin andexcommunication (as affirmed by theThirty-Nine Articles), but also retained some historic Catholic teachings which were not practiced by theContinental Reformed churches, such as thethree orders of ministry and theapostolic succession of bishops, though these were retained by the Scandinavian Lutheran Churches (such as theChurch of Sweden). Peter Robinson,presiding bishop of theUnited Episcopal Church of North America, writes:[7]
Cranmer's personal journey of faith left its mark on the Church of England in the form of a Liturgy that remains to this day more closely allied to Lutheran practice, but that liturgy is couple to a doctrinal stance that is broadly, but decidedly Reformed. ... The 42 Articles of 1552 and the 39 Articles of 1563, both commit the Church of England to the fundamentals of the Reformed Faith. Both sets of Articles affirm the centrality of Scripture, and take a monergist position on Justification. Both sets of Articles affirm that the Church of England accepts the doctrine of predestination and election as a 'comfort to the faithful' but warn against over much speculation concerning that doctrine. Indeed a casual reading of the Wurttemburg Confession of 1551, the Second Helvetic Confession, the Scots Confession of 1560, and the XXXIX Articles of Religion reveal them to be cut from the same bolt of cloth.[7]
Central to Anglican doctrine are the foundational documents of Christianity – all the books of theOld andNew Testaments are accepted, but the books of theApocrypha, while recommended as instructive by Article VI of the Thirty-Nine Articles, are declared not "to establish any doctrine".
Article VIII of the Thirty-Nine Articles declared the three Catholic creeds – theApostles', theNicene and theAthanasian – to "be proved by most certain warrants of holy Scripture" and were included in the first and subsequent editions of The Book of Common Prayer. All Anglican prayer books continue to include the Apostles' and Nicene Creed. Some — such as the Church of England'sCommon Worship orA New Zealand Prayer Book — omit the Athanasian Creed, but include alternative "affirmations". This liturgical diversity suggests that the principles enunciated by the Apostles' and Nicene creeds remain doctrinally unimpeachable. Nonetheless, metaphorical or spiritualised interpretations of some of the creedal declarations – for instance, the virgin birth of Jesus and his resurrection – have been commonplace in Anglicanism since the integration of biblicalcritical theory into theological discourse in the 19th century.[citation needed]
The first four ecumenical councils ofNicea,Constantinople,Ephesus, andChalcedon "have a special place in Anglican theology, secondary to the Scriptures themselves."[8] This authority is usually considered to pertain to questions of the nature of Christ (thehypostasis of divine and human) and the relationships between the Persons of theHoly Trinity, summarised chiefly in the creeds which emerged from those councils. Nonetheless, Article XXI of The Thirty-Nine Articles limit the authority of these and other ecumenical councils, noting that "they may err, and sometimes have erred." In other words, their authority being strictly derivative from and accountable to scripture.
Works related toThirty-Nine Articles at Wikisource
Reformed doctrine andtheology were developed into a distinctive English form by bishops and theologians led by Thomas Cranmer andMatthew Parker. Their doctrine was summarised in the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion which were adopted by theParliament of England and the Church of England in 1571.
The early English Reformers, like contemporaries on the European continent such asJohn Calvin,John Knox andMartin Luther, rejected many Roman Catholic teachings. The Thirty-Nine Articles list coreReformed doctrines such as the sufficiency of theHoly Scriptures for salvation, the execution of Jesus as "the perfect redemption, propitiation, and satisfaction for all the sins of the whole world",Predestination andElection. Some of the articles are simple statements of opposition to Roman Catholic doctrine, such as Article XIV which denies "Works ofSupererogation", Article XV which implicitly excludes theImmaculate Conception, and XXII which explicitly rejects the concept ofPurgatory. Catholic worship and teaching was at the time conducted inLatin, while the Articles required church services to use thevernacular. The Articles revealCalvinist influence, but moderately (double predestination is rejected; God has willed some to redemption because of foresight, but does not will any to perdition), and reject other strands ofProtestant teachings such as the corporeal Real Presence of Lutheranism (but agree on Justification by Faith alone), Zwinglianism, such as those of the doctrine of common property of "certainAnabaptists". Transubstantiation is rejected: i.e. the bread and wine remain in their natural properties. However, the real and essential presence of Christ in the eucharist is affirmed but "only after an heavenly and spiritual manner", consistent with aReformed view of the Lord's Supper (cf.Lord's Supper in Reformed theology).[9]
In contrast to Calvin, the Articles did not explicitly reject theLutheran doctrine ofSacramental Union, a doctrine which is often confused with the medieval Lollard doctrine of Consubstantiation. The Articles also endorse anEpiscopal polity, and the English monarch asSupreme Governor of the Church of England to replace theBishop of Rome. The Articles can also be read as permitting the acceptance of the five so-called "non-dominical" sacraments of private confession, marriage, ordination, anointing of the sick, and confirmation as legitimately sacramental, in addition toBaptism and theEucharist. The Sacrifice of Masses is rejected. The doctrine of the eucharistic as the Church's sacrifice or oblation to God, dating from the second century A.D., is rejected but the Holy Communion is referred to as the Sacrifice of Praise and Thanksgiving in an optional Prayer of Oblation after the reception of Communion.
TheChurch of England has not amended the Thirty-Nine Articles. However,synodical legislators made changes to canon law to accommodate those who feel unable to adhere strictly to the Thirty-Nine Articles. The legal form of the declaration of assent required of clergy on their appointment, which was at its most rigid in 1689, was amended in 1865 and again in 1975 to allow more latitude. Outside of the Church of England, the Articles have an even less secure status and are generally treated as an edifying historical document not binding on doctrine or practice.
The Homilies are two books of thirty-three sermons developingReformed doctrines in greater depth and detail than in the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion. During the reigns ofEdward VI andElizabeth I, Thomas Cranmer and other English Reformers saw the need for local congregations to be taught Christian theology and practice. Sermons were appointed and required to be read each Sunday and holy day in English. Some are straightforward exhortations to read scripture daily and lead a life of faith; others are rather lengthy scholarly treatises directed at academic audiences on theology, church history, the fall of theChristian Empire and the heresies ofRome.
The Homilies are noteworthy for their beautiful and magisterial phrasing and the instances of historical terms. Each homily is heavily annotated with references to scripture, thechurch fathers, and other primary sources. The reading of the Homilies in church is still directed under Article XXXV of the Thirty-Nine Articles.
The original Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England was published in 1549, and its most recently approved successor was issued in 1662. It is this edition that national prayer-books (with the exception of Scotland's) used as a template as the Anglican Communion spread outside England. The foundational status of the 1662 edition has led to its being cited as an authority on doctrine. This status reflects a more pervasive element of Anglican doctrinal development, namely that oflex orandi, lex credendi, or "the law of prayer is the law of belief".[Note 2]
The Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral is a summation of the Anglican approach to theology, worship and church structure and is often cited as a basic summary of the essentials of Anglican identity. The four points are:
The four points originated in resolutions of theEpiscopal Church in the United States of 1886 and were (more significantly) modified and finalised in the 1888Lambeth Conference of bishops of the Anglican Communion. Primarily intended as a means of pursuing ecumenical dialogue with the Roman Catholic Church, the Quadrilateral soon became a "sine qua non" for essential Anglican identity.
Anglicanism has writers whose works are regarded as standards for faith and doctrine. While there is no definitive list, such individuals are implicitly recognised as authoritative by their inclusion inAnglican liturgical calendars or in anthologies of works on Anglican theology. These include such early figures asThomas Cranmer,Lancelot Andrewes,John Cosin,Richard Hooker,John Jewel,Matthew Parker, andJeremy Taylor; and later figures such asJoseph Butler,William Law,John Wesley, andGeorge Whitefield. The 19th century produced several prominent Anglican thinkers, notablyJohn Keble,Frederick Denison Maurice,John Henry Newman,Edward Pusey, andJohn Charles Ryle. More recently,Charles Gore,Michael Ramsey, andWilliam Temple have been included among the pantheon. While this list gives a snapshot, it is not exhaustive.
Given that the foundational elements of Anglican doctrine are either not binding or are subject to local interpretation, methodology has tended to assume a place of key importance. Hence, it is not so much a body of doctrinal statements so much as the process of doctrinal development that is important in Anglican theological identity.[citation needed]
Anglicanism has traditionally expressed its doctrinal convictions based on the prayer texts and liturgy of the church. In other words, appeal has typically been made to what Anglicans do and prescribe in common worship, enunciated in the texts of the Book of Common Prayer and other national prayer books, to guide theology and practice. Applying this axiom to doctrine, there are three venues for its expression in the worship of the Church:
The principle oflex orandi, lex credendi functions according to the so-called "three-legged stool" of scripture, tradition, and reason attributed to Richard Hooker.[11] This doctrinal stance is intended to enable Anglicanism to construct a theology that is pragmatic, focused on the institution of the church, yet engaged with the world. It is, in short, a theology that places a high value on the traditions of the faith and the intellect of the faithful, acknowledging the primacy of the worshipping community in articulating, amending, and passing down the church's beliefs. In doing so, Anglican theology is inclined towards acomprehensive consensus concerning the principles of the tradition and the relationship between the church and society. In this sense, Anglicans have viewed their theology as stronglyincarnational – expressing the conviction that God is revealed in the physical and temporal things of everyday life and the attributes of specific times and places.
This approach has its hazards, however. For instance, there is a countervailing tendency to be "text-centric", that is, to focus on the technical, historical, and interpretative aspects of prayer books and their relationship to the institution of the church, rather than on the relationship between faith and life. Second, the emphasis on comprehensiveness often instead results in compromise or tolerance of every viewpoint. The effect that is created is that Anglicanism may appear to stand for nothing or for everything, and that an unstable and unsatisfactory middle-ground is staked while theological disputes wage interminably. Finally, whilelex orandi, lex credendi helped solidify a uniform Anglican perspective when the 1662 Prayer Book and its successors predominated, and while expatriate bishops of the United Kingdom enforced its conformity in territories of theBritish Empire, this has long since ceased to be true. Liturgical reform and thepost-colonial reorganisation of national churches has led to a growing diversity in common worship since the middle of the 20th century.
The principle oflex orandi, lex credendi discloses a larger theme in the approach of Anglicanism to doctrine, namely, that doctrine is considered a lived experience; since in living it, the community comes to understand its character. In this sense, doctrine is considered to be a dynamic, participatory enterprise rather than a static one.
This inherent sense of dynamism was articulated byJohn Henry Newman a century and a half ago, when he asked how, given the passage of time, we can be sure that the Christianity of today is the same religion as that envisioned and developed byJesus Christ and theapostles.[Note 3] As indicated above, Anglicans look to the teaching of the Bible and of the undivided Church of the first five centuries as the sufficient criterion for an understanding of doctrine, as expressed in the creeds. Yet they are only a criterion: interpretation, and thus doctrinal development, is thoroughly contextual. The reason this is the case is chiefly due to three factors:
Newman's suggestion of two criteria for the sound development of doctrine has permeated Anglican thinking. These are, first, that development must be open and accessible to the faithful at every stage; and second, that it must be subject to appeal to scripture and the precedents of antiquity through the process of sound scholarship. The method by which this is accomplished is by the distillation of doctrine through, and its subordination to a dominant Anglicanethos consisting of the maintenance of order through consensus, comprehensiveness, and contract; and a preference for pragmatism over speculation.[12] In other words, the former — experience — flows from the latter — method. Anglican doctrinalmethodology means concurrence with a base structure of shared identity: An agreement on the fundamentals of the faith articulated in the creeds; the existence of Protestant and catholic elements creating both avia media as well as a "union of opposites";[Note 4] and the conviction that there is development in understanding the truth, expressed more in practical terms rather than theoretical ones.[13] In short, the character of Anglicanism is that the church "contains in itself many elements regarded as mutually exclusive in other communions."[14]
Anglican churches in other countries generally inherited the doctrinal apparatus of the Church of England, consisting most commonly an adaptation of the Thirty-Nine Articles and the Quadrilateral into general principles. From the earliest times, they have adapted them to suit their local needs.
Canon law in the churches of the Anglican Communion stem from the law of thepatristic andMedieval Western church which was received, along with the limiting conditions of theEnglish Reformation. Canon law touches on several areas of church life:ecclesiology, that is, the governance and structure of the church as an institution; liturgy; relationships with secular institutions; and the doctrines which implicitly or explicitly touch on these matters. Such laws have varying degrees and means of enforcement, variability, and jurisdiction.
The nature of canon law is complicated by the status of the Church of England as subordinate to the crown; a status which does not affect jurisdictions outside England, including those of theScottish Episcopal Church, theChurch of Ireland, and theChurch in Wales. It is further complicated by the relationship between the autonomous churches of the Communion itself; since the canon law of one jurisdiction has no status in that of another. Moreover, there is — as mentioned above — no internationaljuridical system which can formulate or enforce uniformity in any matter. This has led to conflict regarding certain issues (see below), leading to calls for a "covenant" specifying the parameters of Anglican doctrinal development (seeAnglican realignment for discussion).
As mentioned above, the Anglican Communion has no international juridical organisation. The Archbishop of Canterbury's role is strictly symbolic and unifying, and the Communion's three international bodies are consultative and collaborative, their resolutions having no legal effect on the independent provinces of the Communion. Taken together, however, the four do function as "instruments of unity", since all churches of the Communion participate in them. In order of antiquity, they are:
Since there is no binding authority in the Communion, these international bodies are a vehicle for consultation and persuasion. In recent years, persuasion has tipped over into debates over conformity in certain areas of doctrine, discipline, worship, and ethics.
The effect of nationalising the Catholic faith in England inevitably led to conflict between factions wishing to remain obedient to thePope, those wishing more radical reform, and those holding a middle ground. A range ofPresbyterian,Congregational,Baptist and otherPuritan views gained currency in the Church in England, Ireland, and Wales through the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Although thePilgrim Fathers felt compelled to leave forNew England, otherPuritans gained increasing ecclesiastical and political authority, while Royalists advocatedArminianism and theDivine Right of Kings. This conflict was one of the ultimate causes of theEnglish Civil War. TheChurch of England, with the assistance ofPresbyterianChurch of Scotland theologians and clergy, set down their newly developedCalvinist doctrines in theWestminster Confession of 1648, which was never formally adopted into church law. After theRestoration of 1660 and the 1662Act of Uniformity reinforced Cranmer's Anglicanism, those wishing to hold to the stricter views set out at Westminster either emigrated or covertly founded non-conformist Presbyterian, Congregational, or Baptist churches at home.
The 18th century saw theGreat Awakening, theMethodistschism, and the identification of theEvangelical party among the many conservatives who remained in the Anglican churches. The schism with theMethodists in the 18th century had a theological aspect (with Methodism being Arminian), particularly concerning the Wesleyan emphasis on personal salvation by faith alone, althoughJohn Wesley continued to regard himself as a member of the Church of England. The same period also saw the emergence of theHigh Church movement, which began to identify with theCatholic heritage of Anglicanism, and to emphasise the importance of theEucharist and church tradition, while mostly rejecting the legitimacy of papal authority in England. The High Churchmen gave birth to theOxford Movement and the resultingAnglo-Catholic party of Anglicanism in the 19th century, which also saw the emergence ofLiberal Christianity across theProtestant world.
The mid-19th century saw doctrinal debate between adherents of theOxford Movement and theirLow Church orEvangelical opponents, though the most public conflict tended to involve more superficial matters such as the use of church ornaments, vestments, candles, and ceremonial (which were taken to indicate a sympathy with Roman Catholic doctrine), and the extent to which such matters ought to be restricted by the church authorities. These conflicts led to further schism, for example in the creation of theReformed Episcopal Church in North America.
Beginning in the 17th century, Anglicanism came under the influence oflatitudinarianism, chiefly represented by theCambridge Platonists, who held that doctrinal orthodoxy was less important than applying rational rigour to the examination of theological propositions. The increasing influence of Germanhigher criticism of the Bible throughout the 19th century, however, resulted in growing doctrinal disagreement over the interpretation and application of scripture. This debate was intensified with the accumulation of insights derived from the natural and social sciences which tended to challenge literally read biblical accounts. Figures such asJoseph Lightfoot andBrooke Foss Westcott helped mediate the transition from the theology of Hooker, Andrewes, and Taylor to accommodate these developments. In the early 20th century, the liberal Catholicism ofCharles Gore andWilliam Temple attempted to fuse the insights of modern biblical criticism with the theology expressed in the creeds and by theApostolic Fathers, but the following generations of scholars, such asGordon Selwyn andJohn Robinson questioned what had hitherto been the sacrosanct status of these verities. As the century progressed, the conflict sharpened, chiefly finding its expression in the application of biblically derived doctrine to social issues.
Anglicans have debated the relationship between doctrine and social issues since its origins, when the focus was chiefly on the church's proper relationship to the state. Later, in the 18th and early 19th centuries, the focus shifted toslavery. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Anglicans fiercely debated the use of artificialcontraception by Christian couples, which was prohibited by church teaching. In 1930 theLambeth Conference took a lone stand among major Christian denominations at the time and permitted its use in some circumstances[16] (see alsoChristian views on contraception).
The 20th century also saw an intense doctrinal debate among Anglicans over theordination of women, which led to schism, as well as to the conversion of some Anglican clergy to Roman Catholicism. Even today, there is no unanimity of doctrine or practice in the Anglican Communion as it relates to women's ordination. Finally, in the 1950s, '60s, and '70s Anglican churches wrestled with the issue of theremarriage of divorced persons, which was prohibited by dominical commandment. Once again, there is presently no unanimity of doctrine or practice.
The focus of doctrinal debate on issues of social theology has continued into the 21st century. Indeed, the eclipse of issues of classical doctrine, such as confessions of faith, has been exemplified by the relatively non-controversial decisions by some Communion provinces to amend the Nicene Creed by dropping thefilioque clause, or supplementing the historic creeds with other affirmations of faith.[Note 5] As of 2016, the prominent doctrinal issue being actively debated in Anglican synods and convocations across the world is the place of gay and lesbian people in the life of the church — specifically with respect tosame-sex unions andordination (seeHomosexuality and the Anglican Communion).
The consecration of bishops and the extension of sacraments to individuals based on gender orsexual orientation would ordinarily be matters of concern to the synods of the autonomous provinces of the Communion. Insofar as they affect other provinces, it is by association — either the physical association between the individuals to whom the sacraments have been extended and those who oppose such extension; or the perceptual association of Anglicanism generally with such practices. Regardless, these issues have incited debate over the parameters of domestic autonomy in doctrinal matters in the absence of international consensus. Some dioceses and provinces have moved further than others can easily accept, and some conservative parishes within them have sought pastoral oversight from bishops of other dioceses or provinces, in contravention of traditional Anglicanpolity (seeAnglican realignment). These developments have led some to call for a covenant to delimit the power of provinces to act on controversial issues independently, while others have called for a renewed commitment to comprehensiveness and tolerance of diverse practice.
In addition to his emphasis on Bible reading and the introduction to theBook of Common Prayer, other media through which Cranmer sought to catechize the English people were the introduction of the First Book of Homilies and the 39 Articles of Religion. Together with theBook of Common Prayer and the Forty-Two Articles (which were later reduced to thirty-nine), the Book of Homilies stands as one of the essential texts of the Edwardian Reformation, and they all helped to define the shape of Anglicanism then, and in the subsequent centuries. More so, the Articles of Religion, whose primary shape and content were given by Archbishop Cranmer and Bishop Ridley in 1553 (and whose final official form was ratified by Convocation, the Queen, and Parliament in 1571), provided a more precise interpretation of Christian doctrine to the English people. According to John H. Rodgers, they "constitute the formal statements of the accepted, common teaching put forth by the Church of England as a result of the Reformation."
Thomas Cranmer shaped the piety and theology of the reformed Church of England through his Book of Common Prayer.
Others had made similar observations, Patrick McGrath commenting that the Church of England was not a middle way between Roman Catholic and Protestant, but "between different forms of Protestantism", and William Monter describing the Church of England as "a unique style of Protestantism, a via media between the Reformed and Lutheran traditions". MacCulloch has described Cranmer as seeking a middle way between Zurich and Wittenberg but elsewhere remarks that the Church of England was "nearer Zurich and Geneva than Wittenberg.
The theology of the founding documents of the Anglican church—the Book of Homilies, the Book of Common Prayer, and the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion—expresses a theology in keeping with the Reformed theology of the Swiss and South German Reformation. It is neither Lutheran, nor simply Calvinist, though it resonates with many of Calvin's thoughts.
