Angkor Wat (/ˌæŋkɔːrˈwɒt/;Khmer:អង្គរវត្ត, "City/Capital ofTemples") is aHindu-Buddhist complex inCambodia. Located on a site measuring 162.6 hectares (1.6 km2; 401.8 acres) within the ancientKhmer capital city ofAngkor, it was originally constructed in 1150 CE as aHindu temple dedicated to the deityVishnu. It was later gradually transformed into aBuddhist temple towards the end of the century. Hailed as thelargest religious structure in the world, it is one of the best examples of Khmer architecture and a symbol of Cambodia, depicted as a part of theCambodian national flag.
Angkor Wat was built at the behest of the Khmer kingSuryavarman II in the early 12th century inYaśodharapura (present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: thetemple-mountain and the latergalleried temple. It is designed to representMount Meru, home of thedevas inHindu mythology and is surrounded by amoat more than 5 km (3.1 mi). Enclosed within an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. The expansive Temple complex covers an area of 400 acres.[1] At the centre of the temple stands aquincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west with scholars divided as to the significance of this.
The temple complex fell into disuse before being restored in the 20th century with various international agencies involved in the project.
The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensivebas-reliefs anddevatas adorning its walls. The Angkor area was designated as aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site in 1992. The Angkor Wat is a major tourist attraction and attracts more than 2.5 million visitors every year.
The modern nameAngkor Wat, means "Temple City" or "City of Temples" inKhmer language.[2]Angkor (អង្គរângkôr), meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular form of the wordnokor (នគរnôkôr), which comes from theSanskrit/Pali wordnagara (Devanāgarī: नगर).[3]Wat (វត្តvôtt) is the word for "temple grounds", also derived from Sanskrit/Palivāṭa (Devanāgarī: वाट), meaning "enclosure".[4] The original name of the temple wasVrah Viṣṇuloka orParama Viṣṇuloka meaning "the sacred dwelling of Vishnu".[5][6] The term might also mean "The king who has gone to the supreme world of Vishnu", referring to Suryavarman II posthumously and intended to venerate his glory and memory.[5]
Angkor Wat was commissioned by theKhmer kingSuryavarman II (ruled 1113–c. 1150) in the early 12th century inYaśodharapura (present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire. The construction of the temple commenced in 1122 CE and was completed in 1150 CE.[7] The temple complex was constructed on the suggestion of Divākarapaṇḍita(1040–c. 1120).[8] The temple was dedicated toHindu godVishnu and the original religious motifs were derived fromHinduism.[9] It was built as the king's state temple in the capital city. As there are no foundationstela or any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple's name that have been found, its original name is unknown and it may have been known asVrah Viṣṇuloka after the presiding deity.[5] The work on the temple ceased after the king's death, leaving some of thebas-relief decoration unfinished.[10]
In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by theChams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer.[11] Thereafter, the Khmer empire was restored byJayavarman VII, who established a new capital atAngkor Thom and theBayon as the state temple, situated to the north. The temple was dedicated toBuddhism as the king's wifeIndradevi was a devoutMahayana Buddhist who encouraged him to convert. Angkor Wat was therefore also gradually converted into a Buddhist site with many Hindu sculptures replaced by Buddhist art.[9][12][13]
After the transformation from a Hindu centre of worship toBuddhism towards the end of the 12th century, Angkor Wat continues to be a Buddhist center until the present day.[13] Historical records show that Chinese envoyZhou Daguan and travellerZheng He visited the Angkor Wat in the 13–14th centuries. Zheng He studied the temple architecture which was later incorporated in the Dabaoen Temple and Glazed Pagoda.[14] Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was largely neglected after the 16th century, it was never completely abandoned.[15] Fourteen inscriptions dated from the 17th century, discovered in the Angkor area, state thatJapanese Buddhist pilgrims had established small settlements alongside Khmer locals.[16] The inscription also tells ofUkondayu Kazufusa, who celebrated theKhmer New Year at Angkor Wat in 1632.[17]
Photograph of Angkor Wat byEmile Gsell, c. 1866View of the West Entrance of Angkor Wat by Delaporte 1873
In the 16th century, Portuguese traders and missionaries discovered a vast stone city hidden in the northern Cambodian forests, abandoned for over 150 years. This city contained temples, including Angkor Wat—the largest religious monument—which dominated the site. One of the first recorded visitors wasAntónio da Madalena, aCapuchin friar who explored the ruins in 1586. Three years later, he relayed his observations toDiogo do Couto, the official historian of the Portuguese Indies. Do Couto documented the friar's account in his historical writings as follows:[18]
Half a league from this city is a temple called Angar. It is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of. There are many smaller towers of similar style, in the same stone, which are gilded. The temple is surrounded by a moat, and access is by a single bridge, protected by two stone tigers so grand and fearsome as to strike terror into the visitor.
— Diogo do Couto
In 1860, the temple was effectively rediscovered by French naturalist and explorerHenri Mouhot with the help of French missionary Father Charles-Émile Bouillevaux. Mouhot popularised the site in the West through the publication of travel notes, in which he wrote:
One of these temples, a rival tothat of Solomon, and erected by some ancientMichelangelo, might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us byGreece orRome, and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged.[19]
Mouhot's work was published posthumously in 1864 through theRoyal Geographical Society with descriptions of Angkor under the titleTravels in the Central Parts of Indo-China, Siam, Cambodia and Laos. In 1861, German anthropologistAdolf Bastian undertook a four-year trip toSoutheast Asia and his account of this trip titledThe People of East Asia, ran to six volumes and was published in 1868. The books detailed the Angkor monuments but lacked drawings of the Angkorian sites.[20]
France adopted Cambodia as aprotectorate on 11 August 1863 partly due to the artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region and invadedSiam. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern corner of the country includingSiem Reap,Battambang, andSisophon which were under Siamese rule from 1795 to 1907.[21][22] Followingexcavations at the site, there were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement such as cooking utensils, weapons, or items of clothing usually found at ancient sites.[23]
In the 20th century, a considerable effort was launched to clear the plant overgrowth and restore the temple complex. Conservation d'Angkor (Angkor Conservancy) was established by theÉcole française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO) in 1908.[24][25] The Conservation d'Angkor was responsible for the research, conservation, and restoration activities carried out at Angkor until the early 1970s with major restoration works undertaken in the 1960s.[26][27] Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953 and has controlled Angkor Wat since then.
Bullet holes left by a shoot-out between theKhmer Rouge and Vietnamese forces at Angkor Wat
Restoration work was interrupted by theCambodian Civil War when theKhmer Rouge took control of the country during the 1970s and 1980s. Work on Angkor was abandoned duringthe Khmer Rouge era and the Conservation d'Angkor was disbanded in 1975.[28] Camping Khmer Rouge forces used whatever wood remained in the building structures for firewood, and a shoot-out between Khmer Rouge and Vietnamese forces caused a few bullet holes in bas reliefs. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, far more damage was done to the reliefs byart thieves working out of Cambodia who lopped off many sculptures and other structures, including earlier reconstructions.[29] As with most other ancient temples in Cambodia, Angkor Wat also faced extensive damage and deterioration by a combination of plant overgrowth, fungi, ground movements, war damage, and theft, though the war damage to Angkor Wat's temples was limited compared to the rest of Cambodia's temple ruins.[29]
The restored head of anāga beside an unrestored lion sculpture leading to the entrance of Angkor Wat
Between 1986 and 1992, theArchaeological Survey of India carried out restoration work on the temple as France did not recognise the Cambodian government at the time.[30] Criticisms have been raised about both the early French restoration attempts and the later Indian work, with concerns over the damage done to the stone surface by the use of various chemicals and cement.[29][31][32]
In the 21st century, teams from several countries including France, India, Japan and China are involved in Angkor Wat conservation projects. TheGerman Apsara Conservation Project (GACP) was launched to protect thedevatas, and other bas-reliefs that decorate the temple from further damage when the organization's survey found that around 20% of the reliefs were in very poor condition mainly because of natural erosion and deterioration of the stone, but also in part also due to earlier restoration efforts.[39] Microbial biofilms degraded sandstone at Angkor Wat.[40] Other work involved the repair of collapsed sections of the structure and prevention of further collapse. For example, the west facade of the upper level was buttressed by scaffolding in 2002. A Japanese team completed the restoration of the north library of the outer enclosure in 2005.[41][42] Replicas have been made to replace some of the lost or damaged sculptures.[43]
In December 2015, it was announced that a research team from theUniversity of Sydney found a previously unseen ensemble of buried towers that were built and demolished during the construction of Angkor Wat, as well as a massive structure, with wooden fortifications, of unknown purpose on its south side. The findings included evidence of low-density residential occupation, a road grid, ponds and mounds in the region. These discoveries indicated that the temple precinct, bounded by a moat and wall, may not have been used exclusively by the priestly elite, as was previously thought.[44]
The general layout of Angkor Wat with its central structure in the middle
A detailed plan of the central structure
Angkor Wat is a unique combination of thetemple mountain (the standard design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of concentricgalleries, most of which were originally derived from religious beliefs ofHinduism.[9] The construction of Angkor Wat suggests that there was a celestial significance with certain features of the temple. This is observed in the temple's east–west orientation, and lines of sight from terraces within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise location of the solstice at sunrise.[46] The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns with the morning sun of thespring equinox.[47][48] The temple is a representation ofMount Meru, the home of the gods according toHindu mythology: the centralquincunx of towers symbolise the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolise the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean.[49] Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level.[50]
An aerial view of Angkor Wat
Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east. This has led scholars includingMaurice Glaize andGeorge Coedès to hypothesize that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary temple.[51] Further evidence for this view is provided by thebas-reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—prasavya inHindu terminology—as this is the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services.[15] ArchaeologistCharles Higham also describes a container that may have been a funerary jar that was recovered from the central tower.[52] It has been nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of a corpse.[53] Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples ofAngkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication toVishnu, who was associated with the west.[49]
Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka argues that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under KingSuryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above."[54][55] Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles. She distances herself from the speculations of others, such asGraham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellationDraco.[56] The oldest surviving plan of Angkor Wat dates to 1715 and is credited to Fujiwara Tadayoshi. The plan is stored in the Suifu Meitoku-kai Shokokan Museum inMito, Japan.[57]
Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style ofKhmer architecture—the Angkor Wat style—to which it has given its name. Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include theogival, redented towers shaped likelotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements aredevatas (or apsaras),bas-reliefs,pediments, extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work.[58] Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time, includinggildedstucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors.[59]
The temple has drawn praise for the harmony of its design. According to Maurice Glaize, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity, and style."[60] Architect Jacques Dumarçay believes the layout of Angkor Wat borrows Chinese influence in its system of galleries which join at right angles to form courtyards. However, the axial pattern embedded in the plan of Angkor Wat may be derived fromSoutheast Asian cosmology in combination with themandala represented by the main temple.[7]
Part of the wall of the outer enclosure and the moat
The Northern library
The temple complex is surrounded by an outer wall, 1,024 m (3,360 ft) by 802 m (2,631 ft) and 4.5 m (15 ft) high. It is encircled by a 30 m (98 ft) apron of open ground and a moat 190 m (620 ft) wide and over 5 km (3.1 mi) in perimeter.[61] The moat extends 1.5 km (0.93 mi) from east to west and 1.3 km (0.81 mi) from north to south.[62] Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge.[63] There is aGopuram at each of thecardinal points with the western one being the largest and consisting of three partially ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper.[64]
Ta Reach, originally an eight-armed statue ofVishnu
Under the southern tower is a statue known asTa Reach, originally an eight-armed statue of Vishnu that may have occupied the temple's central shrine.[63] Galleries run between the towers and two further entrances on either side of the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they are large enough to admit those animals. These galleries have square pillars on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The ceiling between the pillars is decorated withlotus rosettes. The west face of the wall is decorated with dancing figures and the east face of the wall consists of windows with balusters, decorated with dancing figures, animals anddevatas.
The outer wall encloses a space of 203 acres (82 ha), which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by people from the city and the royal palace to the north of the temple. Similar to other secular buildings of Angkor, these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing remains of them except the outline of some of the streets with most of the area now covered by vegetation.[65] A 350 m (1,150 ft) causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper, withnaga shaped balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the outside on either side. Each side also features alibrary with entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure.[65]
The temple stands on a raised terrace within the walled enclosure. It is made of three rectangulargalleries rising to a central tower, each level higher than the last. The two inner galleries each have four large towers at theirordinal corners (that is, North-west, North-east, South-east, and South-west) surrounding a higher fifth tower. This pattern is sometimes called aquincunx and is believed to represent the mountains of Meru. Because the temple faces west, the features are set back towards the east, leaving more space to be filled in each enclosure and gallery on the west side; for the same reason, the west-facing steps are shallower than those on the other sides.
The central tower symbolizing the sacredMount Meru
One of the four corner towers of Angkor Wat
Mannikka interprets the galleries as being dedicated to the king,Brahma,the moon, andVishnu.[10] Each gallery has agopura with the outer gallery measuring 187 m (614 ft) by 215 m (705 ft), with pavilions at the corners. The gallery is open to the outside of the temple, with columned half-galleries extending and buttressing the structure. Connecting the outer gallery to the second enclosure on the west side is a cruciform cloister calledPreah Poan (meaning "The Thousand Buddhas" gallery).[6]Buddha images were left in the cloister by pilgrims over the centuries, although most have now been removed. This area has many inscriptions relating to the good deeds of pilgrims, most written inKhmer but others inBurmese andJapanese. The four small courtyards marked out by the cloister may originally have been filled with water.[66] North and south of the cloister arelibraries.
A view of the outer gallery of Angkor Wat
Beyond, the second and inner galleries are connected to two flanking libraries by another cruciform terrace, again a later addition. From the second level upwards,devata images are abound on the walls, singly or in groups of up to four. The second-level enclosure is 100 m (330 ft) by 115 m (377 ft), and may originally have been flooded to represent theocean aroundMount Meru.[67] Three sets of steps on each side lead up to the corner towers and gopuras of the inner gallery. The steep stairways may represent the difficulty of ascending to the kingdom of the gods.[68] This inner gallery, called theBakan, is a 60 m (200 ft) square with axial galleries connecting each gopura with the central shrine and subsidiary shrines located below the corner towers.
The roofings of the galleries are decorated with the motif of the body of a snake ending in the heads of lions orgarudas. Carvedlintels and pediments decorate the entrances to the galleries and the shrines. The tower above the central shrine rises 43 m (141 ft) to a height of 65 m (213 ft) above the ground; unlike those of previous temple mountains, the central tower is raised above the surrounding four.[69] The shrine itself, originally occupied by a statue of Vishnu and open on each side, was walled in when the temple was converted toTheravada Buddhism, the new walls featuring standing Buddhas. In 1934, the conservator George Trouvé excavated the pit beneath the central shrine: filled with sand and water it had already been robbed of its treasure, but he did find a sacred foundation deposit ofgold leaf two metres above ground level.[70]
Integrated with the architecture of the building, one of the causes for its fame is Angkor Wat's extensive decoration, which predominantly takes the form ofbas-relief friezes. The inner walls of the outer gallery bear a series of large-scale scenes mainly depicting episodes from theHindu epics theRamayana and theMahabharata. Higham has called these "the greatest known linear arrangement of stone carving".[71] From the north-west corner anti-clockwise, the western gallery shows the Battle of Lanka from the Ramayana, in whichRama defeatsRavana; and theKurukshetra War from the Mahabharata, depicting the mutual annihilation of theKaurava andPandava armies. On the southern gallery, the only historical scene, a procession of Suryavarman II is depicted along with the 32hells and 37heavens of Hinduism.[72]
On the eastern gallery is one of the most celebrated scenes, theChurning of the Sea of Milk, showing 92asuras and 88devas using the serpentVasuki to churn thesea of milk under Vishnu's direction. Mannikka counts only 91 asuras and explains the asymmetrical numbers as representing the number of days from thewinter solstice to thespring equinox, and from the equinox to the summersolstice.[73] It is followed by reliefs showing Vishnu defeatingasuras, which was a 16th-century addition. The northern gallery shows Krishna's victory overBana.[74]
Angkor Wat is decorated with depictions ofapsaras anddevatas with more than 1,796 documented depictions of devatas in the research inventory.[75] The architects also used small apsara images (30–40 cm or 12–16 in) as decorative motifs on pillars and walls. They incorporated larger devata images (full-body portraits measuring approximately 95–110 cm or 37–43 in) more prominently at every level of the temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the high towers. In 1927, Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable diversity of their hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewellery, and decorative flowers depicted in the reliefs, which Marchal concluded were based on actual practices of the Angkor period.[76]
By the 12th century, Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use ofsandstone rather than brick orlaterite as the main building material. Most of the visible areas are sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the outer wall and hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified, although naturalresins orslaked lime have been suggested.[77] The monument was made of five to ten million sandstone blocks with a maximum weight of 1.5 tons each.[78] The sandstone was quarried and transported from Mount Kulen, a quarry approximately 40 km (25 mi) northeast.[79]
The route has been suggested to span 35 km (22 mi) along a canal towardsTonlé Sap lake, another 35 km (22 mi) crossing the lake, and finally 15 km (9 mi) against the current alongSiem Reap River, making a total journey of 90 km (55 mi). In 2011, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda ofWaseda University inTokyo discovered a shorter 35 km (22 mi) canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor Wat using satellite imagery and believe that the Khmer used this route instead.[80]
Most of the surfaces, columns, lintels and roofs are carved with reliefs illustrating scenes fromIndian literature including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots, as well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader, and celestial dancing girls with elaborate hairstyles. The gallery wall is decorated with almost 1,000 m2 (11,000 sq ft) of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets which were highly prized in ancient times and were prime targets for robbers. Based on experiments, the labour force to quarry, transport, carve and install so much sandstone probably ran into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans.[81] The skills required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years earlier, as demonstrated by some artefacts that have been dated to the seventh century, before the Khmer came to power.[23][53]
Due to the global attention that it has received and the millions of visitors it attracts, the Angkor Wat has become a prominent image that is associated with Cambodia, and in this way has become a symbol of Cambodia itself. A depiction of Angkor Wat has been a part ofCambodian national flag since the introduction of the first version in 1863.[82]
From a historical and trans-cultural perspective, however, the temple of Angkor Wat did not become a symbol of national pride by itself but had been inscribed into a larger politico-cultural process of French-colonial heritage productions. Angkor Wat caught the attention and imagination of a wider audience in Europe when the pavilion ofFrench protectorate of Cambodia, as part ofFrench Indochina, recreated the life-size replica of Angkor Wat presented in Frenchcolonial and universal exhibitions inParis andMarseille between 1889 and 1937.[83][84] It was on display in the plaster cast museum ofLouis Delaporte calledmusée Indo-chinois which existed in the ParisianTrocadero Palace from c.1880 to the mid-1920s.[85]
According to the 13th-century Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, some believed that the temple was constructed in a single night by a divine architect.[86] In 1622,The Poem of Angkor Wat composed in the Khmer language describes the beauty of Angkor Wat and propagates a legend around the construction of the complex, supposedly a divine castle built for legendary Khmer king Preah Ket Mealea by Hindu god Preah Pisnukar (or Braḥ Bisṇukār,Vishvakarman).[87] In the 17th century, the Japanese believed that the temple was the location of the famedJetavana garden of theBuddha, which was originally located in the kingdom ofMagadha, India.[88] According to another myth, the construction of Angkor Wat was ordered byIndra to serve as a palace for his son Precha Ket Mealea.[89]
Since the 1990s, Angkor Wat has become a major tourist destination. In 1993, there were only 7,650 visitors to the site and by 2004, government figures show that 561,000 foreign visitors had arrived in Siem Reap province that year, approximately 50% of all foreign tourists in Cambodia.[90][91] The number reached over a million in 2007 and over two million by 2012.[92][93] Angkor Wat received over two million foreign tourists in 2013 and 2.6 million by 2018.[94][95]
The site was managed by the privateSOKIMEX group between 1990 and 2016, which rented it from theCambodian government.[96] The influx of tourists has caused damage such asgraffiti on the walls. Ropes and wooden steps have been introduced to protect the bas-reliefs and floors, respectively. Tourism has also provided some additional funds for maintenance—as of 2000 approximately 28% of ticket revenues across the entireAngkor site was spent on the temples—although most work is carried out by teams sponsored by foreign governments rather than by the Cambodian authorities.[97]
Since Angkor Wat has seen significant growth in tourism throughout the years, UNESCO and its International Co-ordinating Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC), in association with representatives from the Royal Government and APSARA, organised seminars to discuss the concept of "cultural tourism", emphasising the importance of providing high-quality accommodation and services to the tourists and for the Cambodian government to benefit economically, while also incorporating the richness of Cambodian culture. In 2001, this incentive resulted in the concept of the "AngkorTourist City" which would be developed about traditional Khmer architecture, contain leisure and tourist facilities, and provide luxurious hotels capable of accommodating large numbers of tourists.[98]
Angkor Wat with its reflection in the outer pool
The prospect of developing such large tourist accommodations has encountered concerns from both APSARA and the ICC, claiming that previous tourism developments in the area have neglected construction regulations and that more of these projects have the potential to damage landscape features. Also, the large scale of these projects have begun to threaten the quality of the nearby town's water, sewage, and electricity systems. It has also been noted that such high frequency of tourism and growing demand for infrastructure has had a direct effect on the underground water table, subsequently straining the structural stability of the temples at Angkor Wat.[98] Locals of Siem Reap have also voiced concern that the atmosphere of their town have been compromised to entertain tourism. Since this local atmosphere is the key component to projects like Angkor Tourist City, the local officials continue to discuss how to successfully incorporate future tourism without sacrificing local values and culture.[98] At theASEAN Tourism Forum 2012, it was agreed thatBorobudur and Angkor Wat would become sister sites and sister provinces.[99]
In 2020, theCOVID-19 pandemic in Cambodia led totravel restrictions being introduced across the world, which had a severe impact on Cambodia's tourism sector. As a result, visitors to Angkor Wat plummeted, leaving the usually crowded complex almost deserted.[100][101][102] Cambodia, including Angkor Wat, reopened to international visitors in late 2021, but as of the end of 2022 had only received a fraction of its pre-pandemic traffic: a total of 280,000 tourists visited the complex in 2022, versus 2.6 million in 2018.[103] In 2023, the temple saw an increase in numbers over the previous year, having over 400,000 tourists by late July.[104] Tourists reenacting the 2011 game seriesTemple Run in mid-2024 for social media have drawn criticism from conservationists who warn that it risks damaging Angkor Wat's structures and carvings and isculturally insensitive.[105]
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