Emphasizing the distance between God and mankind,revelation-based belief-systems require angels to bridge the gap between the earthly and the transcendent realm.[6] Angels play a lesser role inmonistic belief-systems, since the gap is non-existent. However, angelic beings might be conceived as aid to achieve a proper relationship with the divine.[7]
Abrahamic religions describeangelic hierarchies, which vary by religion and sect. Some angels are indicated with names (such asGabriel orMichael) or are of a specific kind or rank (such as aseraph or anarchangel). Malevolent angels are often believed to have been expelled from heaven and are calledfallen angels. In many such religions, the devil (or devils) are identified with such angels.
Angels in art are often identified withbird wings,[8]halos,[9] and divine light. They are usually shaped like humans of extraordinary beauty, though this is not always the case –sometimes, they are portrayed as being frightening or inhuman.[10]
The wordangel arrives in modern English fromOld Englishengel (with a hardg) and theOld Frenchangele.[11] Both of these derive fromLate Latinangelus, which in turn was borrowed fromLate Greekἄγγελοςangelos (literally "messenger").[12] Τhe word's earliest form isMycenaeana-ke-ro, attested inLinear B syllabic script.[13] According to the Dutch linguistR. S. P. Beekes,ángelos itself may be "an Oriental loan, like ἄγγαρος (ángaros, 'Persian mounted courier')."[14]
The rendering ofángelos is the Septuagint's default translation of theBiblical Hebrew termmalʼākh, denoting simply "messenger" without connoting its nature. In theLatin Vulgate, this meaning becomes bifurcated: whenmalʼākh orángelos is supposed to denote a human messenger, words likenuntius orlegatus are applied. If the word refers to some supernatural being, the wordangelus appears. Such differentiation has been taken over by later vernacular translations of theBible, early Christian and Jewish exegetes and eventually modern scholars.[15]
By that, supernatural powers controlling or influencing humanity's perception of the world, including natural phenomena and humans, are ultimately under control of a supreme God.[16](p102) Prominent angels, such as Michael and Gabriel, reflect a connection to the Chief Semitic deityEl. Even"bad" angels such asSatan,Samael,Iblis etc., can be understood as an operating force within the nature of humans, as responsible for selfish tendencies.[16](p102)
The idea of angels in early Hebrew scripture as supernatural agents is absent.[18] Instead, theHebrew deity intervenes in human affairs, mostly by means of punishment.[19] Only in later thought ofpost-exilic andprophetic writings, the Biblical deity is conceptualized as distant and more merciful, his interventions replaced by the idea of angels.[19] However, such angels still carry out the gruesome attributes of God and can be both benevolent and malevolent.[19] The notion of angels as embodiment of good emerges only under influence ofZoroastrianism, in whichthe Devil is conceived as the principle of evil, with a hosts of demons, in battle with theholy entities (Aməša Spəṇta) created byAhura Mazda (principle of good).[19][18]
The influence ofdualistic tendencies and replacement of divine powers by angels is evident in theQumram writings. In theAngelic Liturgy, theHebrew termelim (deities, heavenly powers) is used for angelic beings and not for God.[20](p23) TheWar Scroll speaks about angels of light fighting against demonic beings of darkness.[20](p20)
Additionally to the Amesha Spentas, theFravashi have often been compared to angels, functioning as aguardian angel, and have been adopted as such by Zoroastrians themselves since the 19th century.[24] Unlike the Amesha Spentas, the Fravashi appear as individualized warriors of Ahura Mazda's celestial army, descending from heaven to aid those who summon them against demons.[25]
In Judaism, angels (Hebrew:מַלְאָךְmal’āḵ; "messenger"), are understood through interpretation of the Tanakh and in a long tradition as supernatural beings who stand by God in heaven, but are strictly to be distinguished from God (YHWH) and are subordinate to him. Occasionally, they can show selected people God's will and instructions.[26] In the Jewish tradition they are also inferior to humans since they have no will of their own and are able to carry out only one divine command.[27]
TheTorah uses theHebrew termsמלאך אלהים (mal'āk̠ 'ĕlōhîm; "messenger of God"),מלאך יהוה (mal'āk̠Yahweh; "messenger of the Lord"),בני אלהים (bənē'ĕlōhîm; "sons of God") andהקודשים (haqqôd̠əšîm; "the holy ones") to refer to beings traditionally interpreted as angels.
The term'מלאך' ('mal'āk̠') is also used in other books of theHebrew Bible. In the early stages of Hebrew writings, the term refers to human messengers, not to supernatural entities.[19][28] A human messenger might be a prophet or priest, such asMalachi, "my messenger"; the Greek superscription in theSeptuagint translation states theBook of Malachi was written "by the hand of his messenger"ἀγγέλου (angélu). Examples of a supernatural messenger[29] are the "Malak YHWH", who is either a messenger from God,[30] an aspect of God (such as thelogos),[31] or God himself as the messenger (the "theophanic angel.")[29][32]
In the early writings of the Hebrew Bible, bothHebrew:בְנֵי־הָאֱלֹהִים,romanized: Bənē hāʾĔlōhīm,lit. 'Sons of Gods' as well as theHebrew:מַלְאָךְ,romanized: mal’āḵ,lit. 'messenger' are aspects of God.[33] In the earliest records, theBənē hāʾĔlōhīm are in heaven. They are depicted as the heavenly court or the pantheon of religious belief-system of their time. They reflect the transcendent aspect of the Divine, but become progressively differentiated from the good aspect of the Divine. Themal’āḵ on the other hand, expresses the Divinties' interaction with the world. As such themal’āḵ functions as the voice of the Divine, the Divine spirit, or as God himself. In Exodus 3:2-4, it is bothYahweh as well as amal’āḵ Moses is addressed by.[34] The fusion of theBənē hāʾĔlōhīm with themal’āḵ is evident in the Book of Hiob. Here, Satan is both one of theBənē hāʾĔlōhīm in the heavenly court, as well as amal’āḵ expressing God's interaction with humanity.[35]
Michael D. Coogan notes that it is only in the late books that the terms "come to mean the benevolent semi-divine beings familiar from later mythology and art."[36]Daniel is the biblical book to refer to individual angels by name,[37] mentioningGabriel in Daniel 9:21 andMichael in Daniel 10:13. These angels are part of Daniel's apocalyptic visions and are an important part ofapocalyptic literature.[36][38]
InDaniel 7, Daniel receives a dream-vision from God. [...] As Daniel watches, theAncient of Days takes his seat on the throne of heaven and sits in judgement in the midst of the heavenly court [...] an [angel] like ason of man approaches the Ancient One in the clouds of heaven and is given everlasting kingship.[39] Jeffrey Burton Russel writes that "the more the banim and the mal'ak were seen as distinct from the God, the more it was possible to thrust upon the evil elements in the divine character that Yahweh had discarded.".[40]
Coogan explains the development of this concept of angels: "In the postexilic period, with the development of explicit monotheism, these divine beings—the 'sons of God' who were members of theDivine Council—were in effect demoted to what are now known as 'angels', understood as beings created by God, but immortal and thus superior to humans."[36] This conception of angels is best understood in contrast todemons and is often thought to be "influenced by the ancient Persian religious tradition ofZoroastrianism, which viewed the world as a battleground between forces of good and forces of evil, between light and darkness."[36] One of these ishāššāṭān, a figure depicted in (among other places) theBook of Job.
Rabbinic Judaism has been an orthodox form ofJudaism since the 6th centuryCE, after the codification of theBabylonian Talmud. In post-BiblicalJudaism, certain angels took on particular significance and developed unique personalities and roles. According to Rabbinic Judaism, the angels have no bodies, but are eternally living creatures created out of fire. TheBabylonian Talmud reads as "The Torah was not given to ministering angels." (לא נתנה תורה למלאכי השרת) usually understood as a concession to human's imperfection, in contrast to the angels.[41] Thus, they occasionally appear inMidrashim as competition with humans.[42]
The angels as heavenly beings, strictly following the laws of God, become jealous of God's affection for man. Humans, by following the Torah, in prayer, by resisting evil instincts (yetzer hara) and byteshuva, are preferred to the flawless angels. As a result, they are also inferior to humans in the Jewish tradition. In the Midrash, the plural ofEl (Elohim) used in Genesis in relation to the creation of human beings is explained by the presence of angels: God therefore consulted with the angels, but made the final decision alone. This story serves as an example, teaching that the powerful should also consult with the weak. God's own final decision highlights God's undisputable omnipotence.[42]
Althougharchangels were believed to rank among theheavenly host, no systematic hierarchy ever developed.Metatron is considered one of the highest of the angels inMerkabah andKabbalah mysticism and often serves as a scribe; he is briefly mentioned in theTalmud[43] and figures prominently in Merkabah mystical texts. Michael, who serves as a warrior[44] and advocate for Israel (Daniel 10:13), is looked upon particularly fondly.[45] Gabriel is mentioned in theBook of Daniel (Daniel 8:15–17) and briefly in the Talmud,[46] as well as in many Merkabahmystical texts. There is no evidence in Judaism for theworship of angels, but there is evidence for theinvocation and sometimes evenconjuration of angels.[37]
Philo of Alexandria identifies the angel with theLogos inasmuch as the angel is the immaterial voice of God. The angel is something different from God himself, but is conceived as God's instrument.[47]
Four classes of ministering angels minister and utter praise before the Holy One, blessed be He: the first camp (led by) Michael on His right, the second camp (led by) Gabriel on His left, the third camp (led by) Uriel before Him, and the fourth camp (led by) Raphael behind Him; and the Shekhinah of the Holy One, blessed be He, is in the centre. He is sitting on a throne high and exalted[48]
According toKabbalah, there are four worlds and our world is the last world: the world of action (Assiyah). Angels exist in the worlds above as a 'task' of God. They are an extension of God to produce effects in this world. After an angel has completed its task, it ceases to exist. The angel is in effect the task. This is derived from thebook of Genesis whenAbraham meets with three angels andLot meets with two. The task of one of the angels was to inform Sara and Abraham of their coming child. The other two were to save Lot and to destroySodom and Gomorrah.[37]
... This leadsAristotle in turn to the demonstrated fact that God, glory and majesty to Him, does not do things by direct contact. God burns things by means of fire; fire is moved by the motion of the sphere; the sphere is moved by means of a disembodied intellect, these intellects being the 'angels which are near to Him', through whose mediation the spheres move ... thus totally disembodied minds exist which emanate from God and are the intermediaries between God and all the bodies [objects] here in this world.
— Guide for the Perplexed II:4, Maimonides
Maimonides had a neo-Aristotelian interpretation of the Bible. Maimonides writes that to the wise man, one sees that what the Bible and Talmud refer to as "angels" are actually allusions to the various laws of nature; they are the principles by which the physical universe operates.
For all forces are angels! How blind, how perniciously blind are the naive?! If you told someone who purports to be a sage of Israel that the Deity sends an angel who enters a woman's womb and there forms an embryo, he would think this a miracle and accept it as a mark of the majesty and power of the Deity, despite the fact that he believes an angel to be a body of fire one third the size of the entire world. All this, he thinks, is possible for God. But if you tell him that God placed in the sperm the power of forming and demarcating these organs, and thatthis is the angel, or that all forms are produced by theActive Intellect; that here is the angel, the "vice-regent of the world" constantly mentioned by the sages, then he will recoil. –Guide for the Perplexed II:4
One ofMelozzo's musician (seraphim) angels from the Basilica dei Santi Apostoli, now in the sacristy of St. Peter's BasilicaAngel of the Revelation byWilliam Blake, created between c. 1803 and c. 1805
The Medieval Christian concept of angels derives from Hebrew and Greek scriptures.[49] In theBible, angels are anthropomorphized intermediaries between God and humanity.[50] Some angels appear to be impersonal forces of the divine will, while others have individual names and personalities.[51]
In the formative stage, the Christian concept of an angel characterized the angel as a 'messenger' of God. The word "angel" can be drawn to the term or role of a "messenger" throughout the Bible in both old and new testaments - (Hebrews 1:14) calls them "ministering [or serving] spirits", sent by God to aid the "heirs of salvation". Later came identification of individual angelic messengers:Gabriel,Michael,Raphael, andUriel.[52] Then, in the space of slightly over two centuries (from the 3rd to the 5th) the image of angels took on definite characteristics both in theology and in art.[53]Ellen Muehlberger has argued that inLate Antiquity, angels were conceived of as one type of being among many, whose primary purpose was to guard and to guide Christians.[54]
In systematic Christian theology, angels are imagined as incorporeal entities and in opposition to corporeal humans, as in the writings ofOrigen andThomas Aquinas.[55][56]
Angels are represented throughoutBibles asspiritual beings which are intermediate between God and humanity: "For thou hast made him [man] a little lower than the angels, and hast crowned him with glory and honour" (Psalms 8:4–5). Christians, based on Psalms and Genesis 2:1, believe that angels were the first beings created by God before the creation of Earth (Psalms 148:2–5;Colossians 1:16). Greek translations of the Hebrew Bible refer to intermediary beings as angels, instead ofdaimons, thus giving raise to a distinction betweendemons and angels.[57] In theOld Testament, both benevolent and fierce angels are mentioned, but never calleddemons. The symmetry lies between angels sent by God, and intermediary spirits of foreign deities, not in good and evil deeds.[58]
Paul the Apostle acknowledges good (2 Cor 11:14; Gal 1:8; 4:14) and evil angels in his writings.[63][64] According to 1 Corinthians 6:3, angels will be judged by God, implying that angels can be both good and evil. Some scholars suggest that Gal 3:19 means that the Law of Moses was introduced by angels rather than God, combined with his statements inGalatians, implies a negative role.[65] InColossians 2:18, he criticizes the worship of angels.[66]
According to Matthew 4:11, after Jesus spent 40 days in the desert, "...theDevil left him and, behold, angels came and ministered to him." In Luke 22:43 an angel comforts Jesus during theAgony in the Garden.[68] In Matthew 28:5 an angel speaks at the empty tomb, following theResurrection of Jesus and the rolling back of the stone by angels.[67]
Pope John Paul II emphasized the role of angels in Catholic teachings in his 1986 address titled "Angels Participate In History Of Salvation", in which he suggested that modern mentality should come to see the importance of angels.[70]
By the late 4th century, theChurch Fathers agreed that there were different categories of angels, with appropriate missions and activities assigned to them. There was, however, some disagreement regarding the nature of angels. Some argued that angels hadphysical bodies,[72] while some maintained that they were entirely spiritual. Some theologians had proposed that angels were notdivine but on the level of immaterial beings subordinate to theTrinity. The resolution of this Trinitarian dispute included the development of doctrine about angels.[73]
According toAugustine of Hippo, the term 'angel' refers to "the name of their office, not [...] their nature", as they are pure spirits who act as messengers, clarifying: "If you seek the name of their nature, it is 'spirit'; if you seek the name of their office, it is 'angel': from what they are, 'spirit', from what they do, 'angel'."[74]Gregory of Nazianzus thought that angels were made as "spirits" and "flames of fire", following Hebrews 1, and that they can be identified with the "thrones, dominions, rulers and authorities" of Colossians 1.[54]
In the Middle Ages, theologians had to address Augustine's ideas of "angelic knowledge", as set out inDe Genesi ad litteram, which he divided into "morning" knowledge, knowledge of Creation before it is created derived from direct access to the Word of God, and "evening" knowledge, knowledge of Creation derived from perceiving it after it has been created.[76]Thomas Aquinas (13th century) related angels toAristotle'smetaphysics in hisSumma contra Gentiles,[77]Summa Theologica,[78] the 8th question ofQuaestiones Disputatae de Veritate,[76] and inDe substantiis separatis,[79] a treatise on angelology.
Aquinas varied significantly from the Augustinian view in two major respects: angels were not created in an initial state of bliss, and only beatified angels have "morning" knowledge.[80]In other words: angels have an angelic nature, but in their natural states have no access to Divine "morning" knowledge of Creation, which they only gain with supernatural assistance.[81]This was Aquinas' most original contribution to Christian angelology.[80]Although angels have greater knowledge than men, they are notomniscient, as Matthew 24:36 points out.[82]
According to theSumma Theologica, angels were created instantaneously by God in a state ofgrace in the EmpyreanHeaven (LXI. 4) at the same time when he created all the contents of the corporeal world (LXI. 3). They are pure spirits whose life consists in knowledge and love. Being bodiless, their knowledge is intellectual and not through senses (LIV. 5). Differently from humans, their knowledge is not acquired from the exterior world (having acquired all knowledge they would ever receive in the moment of their creation); moreover they attain to the truth of a thing at a single glance without need of reasoning (LV. a; LVIII. 3,4). They know all that passes in the external world (LV. 2) and the totality of creatures, but they don't know human secret thoughts that depends on human free will and thereby are not necessarily linked up with external events (LVII. 4). They don't know also the future unless God reveals it to them (LVII. 3).[83]
According to Aquinas, angels are the closest creatures to God. Therefore, like God, they are constituted by pureform withoutmatter.[84] While they do not have a physical composition of matter and form (calledhylomorphism), they possess the metaphysical composition of act (theact of being[85]) and potency (their finite essence, yet without being[85]).[86] Each angel is aspecies which a unique individual belongs to; angels differ one from another by way of their unique and irrepetible form. In other words, form - and not matter - is theirprinciple of individuation.[87]
Belief in angels is fundamental to Islam. The Quranic word for angel (Arabic:ملاكMalāk) derives either fromMalaka, meaning "he controlled", due to their power to govern different affairs assigned to them,[88] or from the root either fromʼ-l-k,l-ʼ-k orm-l-k with the broad meaning of a "messenger", just like its counterparts inHebrew (malʾákh) andGreek (angelos). Unlike their Hebrew counterpart, the term is exclusively used for heavenly spirits of the divine world, but not for human messengers. The Quran refers to both angelic and human messengers as "rasul" instead.[89]
The Quran is the principal source for the Islamic concept of angels.[90] Some of them, such asGabriel andMichael, are mentioned by name in the Quran, others are only referred to by their function. Most Muslim theologians, such asal-Suyuti, based on a hadith stating that the angels have been created throughlight (nūr) or fire (nār), depict angels as entities consisting of substance, in contrast tophilosophers who argued for angels being disembodied spirits.[91] Additionally, angels are thought to be endowed with reason and be subject to God's tests.Al-Maturidi (853–944 CE) states that the inhabitants of heaven were tested by adornments, just as humans and jinn on earth were tested, pointing at Sūrat al-Kahf [Q. 18:7].[92][93] When angels fail their tests, they might end up on earth, such asHarut and Marut. If thedevils (šayāṭīn) have been angels once or form a separate type of creature from the beginning, is discussed in Islamic tradition.[94] Contrary to popular belief, angels are never described as agents of revelation in the Quran, although interpretation credits Gabriel with that.[95] Angels are not limited to benevolent tasks, but can also carry out grim orders.[96] Not demons, but angels are tasked to guard and punish sinners in hell.[97]
Angels play a significant role inMi'raj literature, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.[98] Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology,Islamic theology andIslamic philosophy.[99] Individual angels are further evoked inexorcism rites, with their names engraved in talismans or amulets to call upon their powers.[100]
The Angels meet Adam, the prototypical human being, before they are being tested to prostrate themselves before Adam. They share, albeit to a lesser degree, the defiant reaction of Iblis, the future devil, who, in contrast to the angels, is depicted with a dark face. Painting from a manuscript of the Manṭiq al-ṭayr (The Conference of the Birds) of Farīd al-Dīn ʿAṭṭār. Iran, Shiraz, 899/1494.[101]
Islamic theology usually distinguishes between three types of invisible creatures:angels (malāʾikah),djinn, and devils (šayāṭīn).[102] Islamic theologianal-Ghazali (c. 1058 – 1111) divides human nature into four domains, each representing another type of creature: animals, beasts, devils and angels.[103] Reconciling the literal meaning (Ẓāhir) with the Avicennan cosmology offalsafa of angels, he identified angels with the "celestial intellects" or "immaterial souls".[104] Angels, made from light (Nūr) and thus associated withreason ('aql), represent the intellectual capacity of a human and the ability to bound the devilish qualities from within.[105][106] By that, Ghazali does not deny the literal reality of angels, but rejects that they could be perceived directly.[107]
Although belief in angels remains one ofSix Articles of Faith in Islam, one can not find a dogmatic angelology in Islamic tradition. However, theologians generally distinguish between the angels in heaven (karubiyin), fully absorbed in thema'rifa (knowledge) of God, and the messengers (rasūl) who carry out divine decrees between heaven and earth.[108][109] Others add a third group of angels, and categorize angels intoİlliyyûn Mukarrebûn (those around God's throne),Mudabbirât (carrying the laws of nature), andRasūl (messengers).[110]Al-Baydawi based this divide into two groups on Quranic verses: angels who are self-immersed in knowledge of "the Truth" (al-Haqq), based on "they laud night and day, they never wane" (21:29), they are the "highmost" and "angels brought near" and those who are the executors of commands, based on "they do not disobey Allah in what He commanded them but they do what they are commanded" (66:6), who are the administers of the command of heaven to earth.[111]: 509
Somemodern scholars have emphasized a metaphorical reinterpretation of the concept of angels.[112]
Salafism andWahhabism generally emphasize a literal interpretation of angels against modernistic interpretations, as for example, suggested byNasr Abu Zayd. Simultaneously, many traditional materials regarding angels accepted during the Classical period are often disregarded by Wahhabis and Salafis. TheMuslim Brotherhood scholarsSayyid Qutb andUmar Sulaiman Al-Ashqar reject much established material from earlier periods, for example, the story ofHarut and Marut or calling the Angel of DeathAzrail. Sulayman Ashqar not only rejects the traditional material itself, but also disapproves of previous scholars who used such reports.[113]
In Islam, just like in Judaism and Christianity, angels are often represented inanthropomorphic forms combined withsupernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.[114] The Quran describes them as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four: He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..."[115] The 13th century bookAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt(The Wonders of Creation) byZakariya al-Qazwini describes Islamic angelology, and is often illustrated with many images of angels. The angels are typically depicted with bright, vivid colors, giving them unusual liveliness and other-worldly translucence.[116] While some angels are referred to as "Guardians of the Kingdom of God," others are associated with hell. An undated manuscript ofThe Wonders of Creation from the Bavarian State Library in Munich includes depictions of angels both alone and alongside humans and animals.[116] Angels are also illustrated inTimurid andOttoman manuscripts, such asThe Timurid Book of the Prophet Muhammad's Ascension (Mir'ajnama) and theSiyer-i Nebi.[117]
In hisKitáb-i-ÍqánBaháʼu'lláh, founder of theBaháʼí Faith, describes angels as people who "have consumed, with the fire of the love of God, all human traits and limitations", and have "clothed themselves" with angelic attributes and have become "endowed with the attributes of the spiritual".ʻAbdu'l-Bahá describes angels as the "confirmations of God and His celestial powers" and as "blessed beings who have severed all ties with this nether world" and "been released from the chains of self", and "revealers of God's abounding grace". TheBaháʼí writings also refer to theConcourse on High, an angelic host, and theMaid of Heaven of Baháʼu'lláh's vision.[118]
I raised my hand another time, and bared one of Her breasts that had been hidden beneath Her gown. Then the firmament was illumined by the radiance of its light, contingent beings were made resplendent by its appearance and effulgence, and by its rays, infinite numbers of suns dawned forth, as though they trekked through heavens that were without beginning or end. I became bewildered at the pen of God's handiwork, and at what it had inscribed upon Her temple. It was as though She had appeared with a body of light in the forms of the spirit, as though She moved upon the earth of essence in the substance of manifestation. I noticed that the houris had poked their heads out of their rooms and were suspended in the air above Her. They grew perplexed at Her appearance and Her beauty and were entranced by the raptures of Her song. Praise be to Her creator, fashioner, and maker--to the one Who made Her manifest.
Then she nearly swooned within herself, and with all her being she sought to inhale My fragrance. She opened Her lips, and the rays of light dawned forth from Her teeth, as though the pearls of the cause had appeared from Her treasures and Her shells.
She asked, "Who art Thou?"
I said, "A servant of God and the son of his maidservant."[119]
Western Christian philosophy utlized angels as athought experiment about moral decision making. Angels, as purely spiritual beings, served as an example on how someone makes decisions during optimal psychological and cognitive conditions.[120] The voluntarist account maintains that choices are based onfree-will and that angels either stayed in heaven or fell by their own volution.[121] While the intellectualists need to explain how a spiritual being can suffer from cognitive deficiencies, voluntarists need to explain how beings under the same psychological conditions make different moral choices.Henry of Ghent (c. 1217 – 29 June 1293) asserts that evil volition must precede mistaken consideration. Defective reasoning is described as the result of evil will.[122]Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225 – 7 March 1274), following an intellectualist approach, argued that the mind cannot comprehend all thoughts at once.[123] As such, angels only consider on whatever they focus on, but if they do not focus on the highest good, they commit evil actions. Therefore, decisions are based on intellectual capacity rather than free-will.
Muslim theologianFakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149 or 1150 – 1209) demonstrated hisvirtue ethics on the famous discussion as whether angels or prophets are more noble.[124] While proposing a voluntarist theory earlier, which regarded voluntary actions of humans higher than obedience of angels, his later theories argue for the superiority of angels. Following theFalsafiyya andMu'tazila, al-Razi describes angels as morally perfect beings. He argued that angels are perfect in power and knowledge and thus, there is no obstacle in their moral perfection, whereas humans suffer from physical limitations and cannot obtain moral excellence.[124] Giving priority of essence and attributes over effort and actions, al-Razi constructs a virtue ethic in contrast to theconsequentialist ethics more prevailing among his contemporaries.[124]
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InAncient Greek philosophy, there is no significant distinction made between good and evil spirits.[125] Under Iranian influence, thesublunary sphere was traced to inspiring angels.[125]Philo of Alexandria already identified the Neo-Platonic interpretation ofdaemons as angels. The daemons were thought to be intermediary between the supernatural and earthly realm, interpreted by Philo as theGreek term for angels.[58]
In the commentaries ofProclus (4th century) on theTimaeus ofPlato, Proclus uses the terminology of "angelic" (aggelikos) and "angel" (aggelos) in relation to metaphysical beings. According toAristotle, just as there is aPrime Mover,[126] so too, must there be spiritual secondary movers.[127]
Ibn Sina, developed an angelological hierarchy of Intellects, which are created by "the One" (God). Accordingly, the first creation by God is the supreme intellect. From that intellect, intermediary spirits (angels) emanate. From these intellects, the intellect corresponding to the soul finally emerges. It is by the last Intellect that matter is animated and illuminates the mind.[128][129]
Materialism removed angels from philosophical and scientific consideration.Thomas Hobbes declared angels to be "accidences of the brain" without any external reality.Immanuel Kant’s critique of knowledge further diminished the rational justification for angels.[130]
TheGreek magical papyri, a set of texts forming into a completedgrimoire that date somewhere between 100 BC and 400 AD, also list the names of the angels found in monotheistic religions, but they are presented asdeities.[131] Michael, Raphael, and Gabriel, though of Jewish origin, were popular figures in Hellenistic Egyptian paganism.[132]
InGnostic cosmologies, angels are generally hostile celestial powers. Numerous references to angels present themselves in theNag Hammadi Library, in which they both appear as malevolent servants of theDemiurge and innocent associates of theaeons.[133]
The angels are credited with creating the world and also its rulers in constant battle against each other. They are usurpers of spiritual powers to whom the Gnostic must strive against to become free from envy and greed, and eventually obtains salvation in the immaterial realms.[134]
On the other hand, the soul may act as an angel-like messenger who reveals mysteries and awakens knowledge in human consciousness.[135]
According to theKabbalah as described by theGolden Dawn there are tenarchangels, each commanding one of the choirs of angels and corresponding to one of theSephirot. It is similar to the Jewish angelic hierarchy.
In the teachings of theTheosophical Society,Devas are regarded as living either in theatmospheres of theplanets of theSolar System (Planetary Angels) or inside theSun (Solar Angels) and they help to guide the operation of the processes ofnature such as the process ofevolution and the growth ofplants; their appearance is reputedly like colored flames about the size of a human. It is believed by Theosophists that devas can be observed when thethird eye is activated. Some (but not most) devas originally incarnated ashuman beings.[139]
It is believed by Theosophists thatnature spirits,elementals (gnomes,undines,sylphs, andsalamanders), andfairies also can be observed when thethird eye is activated.[140] It is maintained by Theosophists that these less evolutionarily developed beings have never been previously incarnated as humans; they are regarded as being on a separate line of spiritual evolution called the "deva evolution"; eventually, as theirsouls advance as theyreincarnate, it is believed they will incarnate as devas.[141]
It is asserted by Theosophists that all of the above-mentioned beings possessetheric bodies that are composed ofetheric matter, a type of matter finer and more pure that is composed of smaller particles than ordinaryphysical plane matter.[141]
According to mainstream Christian theology, angels are wholly spiritual beings and therefore do not eat, excrete or have sex, and have no gender. Although their different roles, such as warriors for some archangels, may suggest a human gender, Christian artists were careful not to given them specific gender attributes, at least until the 19th century, when some acquire breasts for example.[143]
In an address during a General Audience of 6 August 1986, entitled "Angels participate in the history of salvation", Pope John Paul II explained that "[T]he angels have no 'body' (even if, in particular circumstances, they reveal themselves under visible forms because of their mission for the good of people)."[70] Christian art perhaps reflects the descriptions inRevelation 4:6–8 of theFour Living Creatures (Greek:τὰ τέσσαρα ζῷα) and the descriptions in the Hebrew Bible ofcherubim andseraphim (thechayot inEzekiel'sMerkabah vision and the Seraphim ofIsaiah). However, while cherubim and seraphim have wings in the Bible, no angel is mentioned as having wings.[144]The earliest known Christian image of an angel—in theCubicolo dell'Annunziazione in theCatacomb of Priscilla (mid-3rd century)—is without wings. In that same period, representations of angels onsarcophagi, lamps andreliquaries also show them without wings,[145] as for example the angel in theSacrifice of Isaac scene in theSarcophagus of Junius Bassus (although the side view of the Sarcophagus shows winged angelic figures).
The earliest known representation of angels with wings is on the "Prince's Sarcophagus", attributed to the time ofTheodosius I (379–395), discovered at Sarigüzel, nearIstanbul, in the 1930s.[146] From that period on, Christian art has represented angels mostly with wings, as in the cycle of mosaics in theBasilica of Saint Mary Major (432–440).[147] Four- and six-winged angels, drawn from the higher grades of angels (especiallycherubim andseraphim) and often showing only their faces and wings, are derived from Persian art and are usually shown only inheavenly contexts, as opposed to performing tasks on earth. They often appear in thependentives of churchdomes orsemi-domes. Prior to the Judeo-Christian tradition, in the Greek world the goddessNike and the godsEros andThanatos were also depicted in human-like form with wings.
John Chrysostom explained the significance of angels' wings:
They manifest a nature's sublimity. That is why Gabriel is represented with wings. Not that angels have wings, but that you may know that they leave the heights and the most elevated dwelling to approach human nature. Accordingly, the wings attributed to these powers have no other meaning than to indicate the sublimity of their nature.[148]
Angels are typically depicted in Mormon art as having no wings based on a quote from Joseph Smith ("An angel of God never has wings").[149]
In terms of their clothing, angels, especially the Archangel Michael, were depicted as military-style agents of God and came to be shown wearingLate Antique military uniform. This uniform could be the normal military dress, with a tunic to about the knees, an armour breastplate andpteruges, but was often the specific dress of the bodyguard of theByzantine Emperor, with a long tunic and theloros, the long gold and jewelledpallium restricted to the Imperial family and their closest guards.
The basic military dress was shown in Western art into theBaroque period and beyond (see Reni picture above), and up to the present day inEastern Orthodoxicons. Other angels came to be conventionally depicted in long robes, and in the later Middle Ages they often wear the vestments of adeacon, acope over adalmatic. This costume was used especially forGabriel inAnnunciation scenes—for example theAnnunciation in Washington byJan van Eyck.
Some types of angels are described as possessing more unusual or frightening attributes, such as the fiery bodies of theSeraphim, and the wheel-like structures of theOphanim.
Southern GermanBaroque angel, byIgnaz Günther, circa 1760–1770, lindenwood with traces of gesso, 26.7 x 18.4 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art
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^al-Suyūṭī’s, Jalāl al-Dīn. "“Panangelon”: Angelology and Its Relation to Polytheism." The Intermediate Worlds of Angels: 153-154
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^abRees, Valery. From Gabriel to Lucifer: A cultural history of angels. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012.
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^Kuehn, S., Leder, S., & Pökel, H. P. (2019, December). Introduction: Angels and Their Religious and Cosmological Contexts. In The Intermediate Worlds of Angels. Ergon-Verlag. p. 15
^Piras A. (2016) Angel. In Vocabulary for the stury of religion Brill
^Hermann Röttger: Mal'ak jhwh, Bote von Gott. Die Vorstellung von Gottesboten im hebräischen Alten Testament. Peter Lang Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1978,ISBN3-261-02633-2 (zugl. Dissertation, Universität Regensburg 1977).Johann Michl: Engel (jüd.). In: RAC, Band 5. Hiersemann Verlag, Stuttgart 1962, p. 60–97. (German)
^Joseph Hertz: Kommentar zum Pentateuch, hier zu Gen 19,17 EU. Morascha Verlag Zürich, 1984. Band I, p. 164. (German)
^Jones, David Albert. Angels: a history. Oxford University Press, 2010. p. 3
^Russell, Jeffrey Burton. The devil: Perceptions of evil from antiquity to primitive Christianity. Cornell University Press, 1987. p. 197
^Russell, Jeffrey Burton. The devil: Perceptions of evil from antiquity to primitive Christianity. Cornell University Press, 1987. p. 197
^Russell, Jeffrey Burton. The devil: Perceptions of evil from antiquity to primitive Christianity. Cornell University Press, 1987. p. 201-202
^abcdCoogan, Michael D. (2009).A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament. Oxford University Press.
^abc"Angelology". The Jewish Encyclopedia.Archived from the original on 28 March 2010. Retrieved30 July 2012.
^Dunn, James D. G. (15 July 2010).Did the First Christians Worship Jesus?: The New Testament Evidence. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 67.ISBN978-1-61164-070-0.God sends an angel to communicate with prophets, and an interpreter angel appears regularly in apocalyptic visions and as companion in heavenly journeys. One of the most fascinating features of several ancient stories is the appearance of what can be calledtheophanic angels; that is, angels who not only bring a message from God, but who represent God in personal terms, or who even may be said to embody God.
^Chilton, Bruce D. (2002)."(The) Son of (The) Man, and Jesus". In Craig A. Evans (ed.).Authenticating the Words of Jesus. BRILL. p. 276.ISBN0-391-04163-0.As described in the book of Daniel, "one like a son of man" is clearly identified as the messianic and angelic redeemer of Israel, a truly heavenly redeemer known to Israel as the archangel Michael.
^Russell, Jeffrey Burton. The devil: Perceptions of evil from antiquity to primitive Christianity. Cornell University Press, 1987. p. 198-199
^Hayes, Christine.The Torah was not Given to Ministering Angels: Rabbinic Aspirationalism. Talmudic Transgressions. Brill, 2017. 123–160.
^abReinhard Gregor Kratz, Hermann Spieckermann: Götterbilder, Gottesbilder, Weltbilder: Griechenland und Rom, Judentum, Christentum und Islam. Mohr Siebeck, 2006,ISBN978-3-16-148807-8 (German)
^Pope Gregory I; David Hurst (OSB.) (1990). "Homily 34".Forty Gospel Homilies. Cistercian Publications. p. 287.ISBN978-0-87907-623-8.You should be aware that the word "angel" denotes a function rather than a nature. Those holy spirits of heaven have indeed always been spirits. They can only be called angels when they deliver some message. Moreover, those who deliver messages of lesser importance are called angels; and those who proclaim messages of supreme importance are called archangels. And so it was that not merely an angel but the archangel Gabriel was sent to the Virgin Mary.
^Pegues, O.P., R.P. Thomas (1922).Cathechism of the "Summa Theologica" of Saint Thomas Aquinas for the Use of the Faithful. Translated by Whitacre, O.P., Aelred. Leipzig: St Athanasius Press. pp. 26–27.ISBN978-1-7216-9547-8.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
^Edward Feser (2009).Aquinas A Beginner's Guide. Simon and Schuster. p. 35.ISBN978-1-78074-006-5.Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved22 February 2023.An angel, says Aquinas, is a form without matter, and thus its essence corresponds to its form alone (DEE 4). ... Does this mean that an angel, as a pure form, is also pure actuality, devoid of potency? By no means.
^Edouard Hugon (2013).Cosmology Translated, with Notes by Francisco J. Romero Carrasquillo. Editiones Scholasticae. p. 196.ISBN978-3-86838-531-1.Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved22 February 2023. Quote: "Another requirement is that there be a principle of individuation. But certain beings, namely angels, lack a principle of individuation, which is signate matter. Hence, the angelic form, even though it is communicable in itself as species, is not in fact communicated, because there are no numerically distinct subjects that can receive it."
^Syed Anwer AliQurʼan, the Fundamental Law of Human Life: Surat ul-Faateha to Surat-ul-Baqarah (sections 1–21) Syed Publications 1984 University of VirginiaDigitalized 22. Okt. 2010 p. 121
^S.R. BurgeJournal of Qurʼanic Studies The Angels in Sūrat al-Malāʾika: Exegeses of Q. 35:1 Sep 2011. vol. 10, No. 1 : pp. 50–70
^Stephen BurgeAngels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik Routledge 2015ISBN978-1-136-50473-0 p. 23
^Stephen Burge Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik Routledge 2015 ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0
^Saleh, Walid A. "Rereading al-Ṭabarī through al-Māturīdī: New light on the third century hijrī." Journal of Qur'anic Studies 18.2 (2016): 180-209.
^Ulrich Rudolph Al-Māturīdī und Die Sunnitische Theologie in Samarkand Brill, 1997ISBN9789004100237 pp. 54-56
^Erdağı, Deniz Özkan. "Evil in Turkish Muslim horror film: the demonic in “Semum”." SN Social Sciences 4.2 (2024): 1-22.
^Welch, A.T., Paret, R. and Pearson, J.D., "al-Ḳurʾān", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E.van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 05 May 2022 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0543>First published online: 2012First print edition:ISBN978-90-04-16121-4, 1960-2007 section 2
^Yazaki, Saeko. "Classes of Beings in Sufism." Sufi Cosmology. Brill, 2022. 68-88.
^Lange, C. R. "Locating hell in Islamic traditions-conference booklet." International symposium in Islamic Traditions. 2012.
^Stephen BurgeAngels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik Routledge 2015ISBN978-1-136-50473-0 p. 29
^Stephen BurgeAngels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik Routledge 2015ISBN978-1-136-50473-0 p. 22
^Patrick Hughes, Thomas Patrick HughesDictionary of Islam Asian Educational Services 1995ISBN978-81-206-0672-2 page 73
^Egdunas Racius ISLAMIC EXEGESIS ON THE JINN: THEIR ORIGIN, KINDS AND SUBSTANCE AND THEIR RELATION TO OTHER BEINGS pp. 132–135
^Zh. D. Dadebayev, M.T. Kozhakanova, I.K.Azimbayeva Human's Anthropological Appearance in Abai Kunanbayev's Works World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology Vol:6 2012-06-23 p. 1065
^Tamer, Georges. Islam and Rationality: The Impact of al-Ghazālī. Papers Collected on His 900th Anniversary. Vol. 1. Vol. 94. Brill, 2015. p. 103
^Amira El-Zein (2009). Islam, Arabs, and Intelligent World of the Jinn. Syracuse University Press. pp. 34–51.
^Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1986). Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9429-1. p. 60
^Wensinck, A. J. (2013). The Muslim Creed: Its Genesis and Historical Development. Vereinigtes Königreich: Taylor & Francis. p. 200
^Imam Abu Hanifa's Al Fiqh Al Akbar Explained By أبو حنيفة النعمان بن ثابت Abu 'l Muntaha Ahmad Al Maghnisawi Abdur Rahman Ibn Yusuf"
^Serdar, Murat. "Hıristiyanlık ve İslâm'da Meleklerin Varlık ve Kısımları." Bilimname 2009.2 (2009). p. 156
^ibn ʿUmar al-Baydawi, ʿAbd Allah (2016).The Lights Of Revelation And The Secrets Of Interpretation. Translated by Haddad, Gibril Fouad. Beacon Books and Media Limited.ISBN9780992633578.
^Fox-Horton, J. (2021). Free Will and the Rebel Angels in Medieval Philosophy by Tobias Hoffmann. Magic, Ritual, and Witchcraft, 16(3), 199.
^Fox-Horton, J. (2021). Free Will and the Rebel Angels in Medieval Philosophy by Tobias Hoffmann. Magic, Ritual, and Witchcraft, 16(3), p. 5
^Fox-Horton, J. (2021). Free Will and the Rebel Angels in Medieval Philosophy by Tobias Hoffmann. Magic, Ritual, and Witchcraft, 16(3), p. 70
^Fox-Horton, J. (2021). Free Will and the Rebel Angels in Medieval Philosophy by Tobias Hoffmann. Magic, Ritual, and Witchcraft, 16(3), p. 205
^abcShihadeh, A. (2021). The Teleological Ethics of Fakhr Al-Dīn Al-Rāzī. Niederlande: Brill. pp. 113-116
^abWoschitz, Karl M., Görg, Manfred, Wischmeyer, Oda, Sparn, Walter, Lohberg, Gabriele, Stubbe, Ellen, Herrmann, Klaus and Schöck, Cornelia, “Angels”, in: Religion Past and Present. Consulted online on 08 February 2024,doi:10.1163/1877-5888_rpp_COM_04337, First published online: 2011, First print edition:ISBN9789004146662, 2006-2013
^abPowell, A.E.The Solar System London:1930 The Theosophical Publishing House (A Complete Outline of the Theosophical Scheme of Evolution) See "Lifewave" chart (refer to index)
^Omarkhali, Khanna (2017).The Yezidi religious textual tradition, from oral to written : categories, transmission, scripturalisation, and canonisation of the Yezidi oral religious texts : with samples of oral and written religious texts and with audio and video samples on CD-ROM. Wiesbaden.ISBN978-3-447-10856-0.OCLC994778968.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^"Because angels are purely spiritual creatures without bodies, there is no sexual difference between them. There are no male or female angels; they are not distinguished by gender.", p. 10, "Catholic Questions, Wise Answers", Ed. Michael J. Daley, St. Anthony Messenger Press, 2001,ISBN978-0-86716-398-8. See alsoCatholic AnswersArchived 2 March 2019 at theWayback Machine, which gives the standard, unchanged, Catholic position.
^"Angel",The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia James Orr, editor, 1915 edition.
^Proverbio (2007), pp. 81–89; cf. review inLa Civiltà Cattolica, 3795–3796 (2–16 August 2008), pp. 327–328.
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