Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (Russian:Андрей Дмитриевич Сахаров; 21 May 1921 – 14 December 1989) was a Soviet physicist and aNobel Peace Prize laureate, which he was awarded in 1975 for emphasizing human rights around the world.
In his memory, theSakharov Prize was established and is awarded annually by theEuropean Parliament for people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms.[2]
Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov was born in Moscow on 21 May 1921, to aRussian family. His father, Dmitri Ivanovich Sakharov, was a physics professor at theSecond Moscow State University and an amateur pianist.[3][4] His grandfather, Ivan, was a lawyer in the formerRussian Empire who had displayed respect for social awareness and humanitarian principles (including advocating the abolition ofcapital punishment). Sakharov's mother, Yekaterina Alekseevna Sofiano, was a daughter of Aleksey Semenovich Sofiano, a general in theTsarist Russian Army withGreek heritage.[5][6]
Sakharov's parents and paternal grandmother, Maria Petrovna, largely shaped his personality; his mother and grandmother were members of theRussian Orthodox Church, although his father was a non-believer. When Andrei was about thirteen, he realized that he did not believe in God. However, despite being anatheist,[7] he did believe in a "guiding principle" that transcends the physical laws.[8]
AfterWorld War II, he researchedcosmic rays. In mid-1948 he participated in theSoviet atomic bomb project underIgor Kurchatov andIgor Tamm. Sakharov's study group at FIAN in 1948 came up with a second concept in August–September 1948.[11] Adding a shell of natural, unenriched uranium around the deuterium would increase the deuterium concentration at the uranium-deuterium boundary and the overall yield of the device, because the natural uranium would capture neutrons and itself fission as part of the thermonuclear reaction. This idea of a layered fission-fusion-fission bomb led Sakharov to call it thesloika, or layered cake.[11] The first Soviet atomic device was tested on August 29, 1949. After moving toSarov in 1950, Sakharov played a key role in the development of the first megaton-range Soviet hydrogen bomb using a design known asSakharov's Third Idea in Russia and theTeller–Ulam design in the United States. Before hisThird Idea, Sakharov tried a "layer cake" of alternating layers of fission and fusion fuel. The results were disappointing, yielding no more than a typical fission bomb. However the design was seen to be worth pursuing because deuterium is abundant and uranium is scarce, and he had no idea how powerful the US design was. Sakharov realised that in order to cause the explosion of one side of the fuel to symmetrically compress the fusion fuel, a mirror could be used to reflect the radiation. The details had not been officially declassified in Russia when Sakharov was writing his memoirs, but in the Teller–Ulam design, soft X-rays emitted by the fission bomb were focused onto a cylinder of lithium deuteride to compress it symmetrically. This is calledradiation implosion. The Teller–Ulam design also had a secondary fission device inside the fusion cylinder to assist with the compression of the fusion fuel and generate neutrons to convert some of the lithium to tritium, producing a mixture of deuterium and tritium.[12][13] Sakharov's idea was first tested asRDS-37 in 1955. A larger variation of the same design which Sakharov worked on was the 50 MtTsar Bomba of October 1961, which was the most powerful nuclear device ever detonated.
Sakharov saw "striking parallels" between his fate and those ofJ. Robert Oppenheimer andEdward Teller in the US. Sakharov believed that in this "tragic confrontation of two outstanding people", both deserved respect, because "each of them was certain he had right on his side and was morally obligated to go to the end in the name of truth." While Sakharov strongly disagreed with Teller overnuclear testing in the atmosphere and theStrategic Defense Initiative, he believed that American academics had been unfair to Teller's resolve to get the H-bomb for the United States since "all steps by the Americans of a temporary or permanent rejection of developing thermonuclear weapons would have been seen either as a clever feint, or as the manifestation of stupidity. In both cases, the reaction would have been the same – avoid the trap and immediately take advantage of the enemy's stupidity."[citation needed]
Sakharov never felt that by creating nuclear weapons he had "known sin", in Oppenheimer's expression. He later wrote:
After more than forty years, we have had nothird world war, and thebalance of nuclear terror ... may have helped to prevent one. But I am not at all sure of this; back then, in those long-gone years, the question didn't even arise. What most troubles me now is the instability of the balance, the extreme peril of the current situation, the appalling waste of the arms race ... Each of us has a responsibility to think about this in global terms, with tolerance, trust, and candor, free from ideological dogmatism, parochial interests, or national egotism."
In 1951 he invented and tested the firstexplosively pumped flux compression generators,[16] compressing magnetic fields byexplosives. He called these devices MK (forMagnetoKumulative) generators. The radial MK-1 produced a pulsed magnetic field of 25megagauss (2500teslas). The resulting helical MK-2 generated 1000 million amperes in 1953.
Sakharov then tested a MK-driven "plasma cannon" where a small aluminum ring was vaporized by hugeeddy currents into a stable, self-confinedtoroidalplasmoid and was accelerated to 100 km/s.[17] Sakharov later suggested replacing the coppercoil in MK generators with a largesuperconductorsolenoid to magnetically compress and focusunderground nuclear explosions into ashaped charge effect. He theorized this could focus 1023protons per second on a 1 mm2 surface.
2D didactic image of Sakharov's model of the universe with reversal of the arrow of time
He tried to explain thebaryon asymmetry of the universe; in that regard, he was the first to give a theoretical motivation forproton decay. Proton decay was suggested by Wigner in 1949 and 1952.[23]
Proton decay experiments had been performed since 1954 already.[24] Sakharov was the first to considerCPT-symmetric events occurringbefore theBig Bang:
We can visualize that neutral spinless maximons (or photons) are produced at ''t'' < 0 from contracting matter having an excess of antiquarks, that they pass "one through the other" at the instant ''t'' = 0 when the density is infinite, and decay with an excess of quarks when ''t'' > 0, realizing total CPT symmetry of the universe. All the phenomena at t < 0 are assumed in this hypothesis to be CPT reflections of the phenomena at t > 0.[25]
His legacy in this domain are the famousconditions named after him:[25] Baryon number violation, C-symmetry and CP-symmetry violation, and interactions out of thermal equilibrium.
Sakharov was also interested in explaining why the curvature of the universe is so small. This led him to consider cyclic models, where the universe oscillates between contraction and expansion phases.[26][27] In those models, after a certain number of cycles the curvature naturally becomes infinite even if it had not started this way: Sakharov considered three starting points, a flat universe with a slightly negative cosmological constant, a universe with a positive curvature and a zero cosmological constant, and a universe with a negative curvature and a slightly negative cosmological constant. Those last two models feature what Sakharov calls a reversal of the time arrow, which can be summarized as follows: He considers times t > 0 after the initial Big Bang singularity at t = 0 (which he calls "Friedman singularity" and denotes Φ) as well as times t < 0 before that singularity. He then assumes that entropy increases when time increases for t > 0 as well as when time decreases for t < 0, which constitutes his reversal of time. Then he considers the case when the universe at t < 0 is the image of the universe at t > 0 under CPT symmetry but also the case when it is not so: the universe has a non-zero CPT charge at t = 0 in this case. Sakharov considers a variant of this model where the reversal of the time arrow occurs at a point of maximum entropy instead of happening at the singularity. In those models there is no dynamic interaction between the universe at t < 0 and t > 0.
In his first model the two universes did not interact, except via local matter accumulation whose density and pressure become high enough to connect the two sheets through a bridge without spacetime between them, but with a continuity of geodesics beyond the Schwarzschild radius with no singularity[citation needed], allowing an exchange of matter between the two conjugated sheets, based on an idea afterIgor Dmitriyevich Novikov.[28] Novikov called such singularities acollapse and ananticollapse, which are an alternative to the coupleblack hole andwhite hole in thewormhole model. Sakharov also proposed the idea ofinduced gravity as an alternative theory ofquantum gravity.[29]
Since the late 1950s Sakharov had become concerned about the moral and political implications of his work. Politically active during the 1960s, Sakharov was againstnuclear proliferation. Pushing for the end of atmospheric tests, he played a role in the 1963Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in Moscow.[30]
Sakharov was also involved in an event with political consequences in 1964, when theSoviet Academy of Sciences nominated for full membershipNikolai Nuzhdin [ru], a follower ofTrofim Lysenko (initiator of the Stalin-supported anti-genetics campaignLysenkoism). Contrary to normal practice, Sakharov, a member of the academy, publicly spoke out against full membership for Nuzhdin and held him responsible for "the defamation, firing, arrest, even death, of many genuine scientists."[31]: 109 In the end, Nuzhdin was not elected, but the episode prompted Nikita Khrushchev to order theKGB to gathercompromising material on Sakharov.[31]: 109 In 1966 Sakharov was one of the signatories on theLetter of the Twenty Five regarding the inadmissibility of "partial or indirect rehabilitation of Joseph Stalin".
The major turn in Sakharov's political evolution came in 1967, whenanti-ballistic missile defense became a key issue inUS–Soviet relations. In a secret detailed letter to the Soviet leadership of July 21, 1967, Sakharov explained the need to "take the Americans at their word" and accept their proposal for a "bilateral rejection by the USA and the Soviet Union of the development of antiballistic missile defense" because an arms race in the new technology would otherwise increase the likelihood of nuclear war. He also asked permission to publish his manuscript, which accompanied the letter, in a newspaper to explain the dangers posed by that kind of defense. The government ignored his letter and refused to let him initiate a public discussion of ABMs in theSoviet press.[32][33]
Since 1967, after theSix Day War and the beginning of theArab-Israeli conflict, he actively supportedIsrael, as he reported more than once in the press, and also maintained friendly relations withrefuseniks who later madealiyah.
In May 1968, Sakharov completed an essay, "Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom". He described the anti-ballistic missile defense as a major threat of world nuclear war. After the essay was circulated insamizdat and then published outside the Soviet Union,[34] Sakharov was banned from conducting any military-related research and returned to FIAN to study fundamental theoretical physics.
For 12 years, until his exile to Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod) in January 1980, Sakharov assumed the role of a widely recognized and open dissident in Moscow.[35]: 21 He stood vigil outside closed courtrooms, wrote appeals on behalf of more than 200 individual prisoners, and continued to write essays about the need for democratization.[35]: 21
In 1970, Sakharov was among the three founding members of theCommittee on Human Rights in the USSR, along withValery Chalidze andAndrei Tverdokhlebov.[35]: 21 The Committee wrote appeals, collected signatures for petitions and succeeded in affiliating with several international human rights organizations. Its work was the subject of many KGB reports and brought Sakharov under increasing pressure from the government.[15]
Sakharov married a fellow human rights activist,Yelena Bonner, in 1972.[36]
By 1973, Sakharov was meeting regularly with Western correspondents and holding press conferences in his apartment.[35]: 21 He appealed to theUS Congress to approve the 1974Jackson-Vanik Amendment to a trade bill, which linked trade tariffs to the Kremlin's willingness to allow freer emigration for Soviet Jews.[35]: 24
In 1972, Sakharov became the target of sustained pressure from his fellow scientists in the Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Soviet press. The writerAleksandr Solzhenitsyn came to his defence.[37]
In 1973 and 1974, the Soviet media campaign continued, targeting both Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn for their pro-Western, anti-socialist positions.
Sakharov later described that it took "years" for him to "understand how much substitution, deceit, and lack of correspondence with reality there was" in the Soviet ideals. "At first I thought, despite everything that I saw with my own eyes, that the Soviet State was a breakthrough into the future, a kind of prototype for all countries". Then he came, in his words, to "the theory of symmetry: all governments and regimes to a first approximation are bad, all peoples are oppressed, and all are threatened by common dangers.":[14]
...symmetry between a cancer cell and a normal one. Yet our state is similar to a cancer cell – with its messianism and expansionism, its totalitarian suppression of dissent, the authoritarian structure of power, with a total absence of public control in the most important decisions in domestic and foreign policy, a closed society that does not inform its citizens of anything substantial, closed to the outside world, without freedom of travel or the exchange of information.[14]
Sakharov's ideas on social development led him to put forward the principle of human rights as a new basis of all politics. In his works, he declared that "the principle 'what is not prohibited is allowed' should be understood literally", and defied what he saw as unwritten ideological rules imposed by the Communist Party on the society in spite of a democraticSoviet Constitution (1936):
I am no volunteer priest of the idea, but simply a man with an unusual fate. I am against all kinds of self-immolation (for myself and for others, including the people closest to me).[14]
In a letter written from exile, he cheered up a fellow physicist and free market advocate with the words: "Fortunately, the future is unpredictable and also – because ofquantum effects – uncertain." For Sakharov, the indeterminacy of the future supported his belief that he could and should take personal responsibility for it.
Sakharov was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. TheNorwegian Nobel Committee called him "a spokesman for the conscience of mankind".[2] In the words of the Nobel Committee's citation: "In a convincing manner Sakharov has emphasised that Man's inviolable rights provide the only safe foundation for genuine and enduring international cooperation."[14]
Sakharov was not allowed to leave the Soviet Union to collect the prize. His wife,Yelena Bonner, read his speech at the ceremony inOslo, Norway.[38][39] On the day the prize was awarded, Sakharov was inVilnius, where the human rights activistSergei Kovalev was being tried.[40] In his Nobel lecture, "Peace, Progress, Human Rights", Sakharov called for an end to the arms race, greater respect for the environment, international cooperation, and universal respect for human rights. He included a list ofprisoners of conscience andpolitical prisoners in the Soviet Union and stated that he shared the prize with them.[39]
By 1976, the head of the KGB,Yuri Andropov, was prepared to call Sakharov "Domestic Enemy Number One" before a group of KGB officers.[35]: 24
The apartment building in Gagarina Avenue 214, Scherbinki district of Nizhny Novgorod where Sakharov lived in exile from 1980 to 1986. His apartment is now a museum.
Sakharov was arrested on 22 January 1980, following his public protests against theSoviet intervention in Afghanistan in 1979, and was sent to the city of Gorky, nowNizhny Novgorod, a city that was off limits to foreigners.[41]
Between 1980 and 1986, Sakharov was kept under Soviet police surveillance. In his memoirs, he mentioned that their apartment in Gorky was repeatedly subjected to searches and heists. Sakharov was named the 1980 Humanist of the Year by theAmerican Humanist Association.[42]
In May 1984, Sakharov's wife,Yelena Bonner, was detained, and Sakharov began ahunger strike, demanding permission for his wife to travel to the United States for heart surgery. He was forcibly hospitalized andforce-fed. He was held in isolation for four months. In August 1984, Bonner was sentenced by a court to five years of exile in Gorky.
In April 1985, Sakharov started a new hunger strike for his wife to travel abroad for medical treatment. He again was taken to a hospital and force-fed. In August, the Politburo discussed what to do about Sakharov.[43] He remained in the hospital until October 1985, when his wife was allowed to travel to the United States. She had heart surgery in the United States and returned to Gorky in June 1986.
On 19 December 1986,Mikhail Gorbachev, who had initiated the policies ofperestroika andglasnost, called Sakharov to tell him that he and his wife could return to Moscow.[45]
In 1988, Sakharov was given the International Humanist Award by theInternational Humanist and Ethical Union.[46] He helped to initiate the first independent legal political organizations and became prominent in the Soviet Union's growing political opposition. In March 1989, Sakharovwas elected to the new parliament, theAll-Union Congress of People's Deputies and co-led the democratic opposition, theInter-Regional Deputies Group. In November the head of the KGB reported to Gorbachev on Sakharov's encouragement and support for the coal miners' strike in Vorkuta.[47]
In December 1988, Sakharov visited Armenia and Azerbaijan on a fact-finding mission.[48] He concluded, "For Azerbaijan the issue ofKarabakh is a matter of ambition, for the Armenians of Karabakh, it is a matter of life and death".[49]
Soon after 9 p.m. on 14 December 1989, Sakharov went to his study to take a nap before preparing an important speech he was to deliver the next day in the Congress. His wife went to wake him at 11 p.m. as he had requested but she found Sakharov dead on the floor. According to the notes of Yakov Rapoport, a senior pathologist present at the autopsy, it is most likely that Sakharov died of anarrhythmia consequent todilated cardiomyopathy at the age of 68.[50] He is interred in the Vostryakovskoye Cemetery in Moscow.
TheSakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought was established in 1988 by theEuropean Parliament in his honour, and is the highest tribute to human rights endeavours awarded by the European Union. It is awarded annually by the parliament to "those who carry the spirit of Soviet dissident Andrei Sakharov"; to "Laureates who, like Sakharov, dedicate their lives to peaceful struggle for human rights."[51]
AnAndrei Sakharov prize has also been awarded by theAmerican Physical Society every second year since 2006 "to recognize outstanding leadership and/or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights".
In 2004, with the approval ofYelena Bonner, an annual Sakharov Prize for journalism was established for reporters and commentators in Russia. Funded by former Soviet dissident Pyotr Vins,[53] now a businessman in the US, the prize is administered by theGlasnost Defence Foundation in Moscow. The prize "for journalism as an act of conscience" has been won over the years by famous journalists such asAnna Politkovskaya and young reporters and editors working far from Russia's media capital, Moscow. The 2015 winner was Yelena Kostyuchenko.[54]
Most of documents of the archive are letters from the head of theKGB to theCentral Committee about activities of Soviet dissidents and recommendations about the interpretation in newspapers. The letters cover the period from 1968 to 1991 (Brezhnev stagnation). The documents characterize not only Sakharov's activity, but that of other dissidents, as well as that of highest-positionapparatchiks and the KGB. No Russian equivalent of the KGB archive is available.
A statue of Andrei Sakharov inYerevan,Armenia"Thank you Andrei Sakharov" mural on theBerlin WallAndrei Sakharov onSoviet Nobel Peace Prize winners, the USSR stamp issued on 14 May 1991
During the 1980s, the block of 16th Street NW between L and M streets, in front of the Soviet embassy in Washington, D.C. (which later became theRussian ambassador's residence) was renamed "Andrei Sakharov Plaza" as a form of protest against his 1980 arrest and detention.[59]
InYerevan, the capital ofArmenia, Sakharov Square, located in the heart of the city, is named after him.
InNizhny Novgorod, there is a Sakharov Museum in the apartment on the first floor of the 12-storeyed house where the Sakharov family lived for seven years; in 2014 his monument was erected near the house.
InSaint Petersburg, his monument stands in Sakharov Square, and there is a Sakharov Park.
A public square inVilnius in front of the Press House is named after Sakharov. The square was named on 16 March 1991, as the Press House was stilloccupied by the Soviet Army.
Andreja Saharova iela in the district ofPļavnieki inRiga, Latvia, is named after Sakharov.
Andreij-Sacharow-Platz in downtownNuremberg is named in honour of Sakharov.
Andreï Sakharov Boulevard in the district ofMladost inSofia,Bulgaria, is named after him.
In New York City, a street sign at the southwest corner of Third Avenue and 67th Street in Manhattan readsSakharov-Bonner Corner, in honor of Sakharov and his wife,Yelena Bonner. The corner is just down the block from the Soviet Mission to the United Nations (which later became the Russian mission) and was the scene of repeated anti-Soviet demonstrations.[62]
In Chisinau, the capital of Moldova, there is Academician Andrei Sakharov street.
In the 1984 made-for-TV filmSakharov starringJason Robards.
In the television seriesStar Trek: The Next Generation, one of theEnterprise-D'sShuttlecraft is named after Sakharov, and is featured prominently in several episodes. This follows theStar Trek tradition of naming Shuttlecraft after prominent scientists, and particularly inThe Next Generation, physicists.
Russian singerAlexander Gradsky wrote and performed the song "Памяти А. Д. Сахарова" ("In memory of Andrei Sakharov"), which features on hisLive In "Russia" 2 (Живем в "России" 2) CD.[63]
In 1980, Sakharov was stripped of all Soviet awards for "anti-Soviet activities".[66] Later, duringglasnost, he declined the return of his awards and, consequently,Mikhail Gorbachev did not sign the necessary decree.[67]
Sakharov, Andrei (Spring 1969). "Here and there: the threat of nuclear war".American Scientist.57 (1):167–171.JSTOR27828445.
Sakharov, Andrei (1974).О письме Александра Солженицына "Вождям Советского Союза" [On Alexander Solzhenitsyn's "A Letter to the Soviet Leaders"] (in Russian). New York: Khronika.OCLC2326203.
Sakharov, Andrei (Fall 1978). "The human rights movement in the USSR and Eastern Europe: its goals, significance, and difficulties".Trialogue (19):4–7,26–27.
Sajarov, Andrei; Bonner, Elena (1989). "Al simposio de Madrid sobre las relaciones comerciales y económicas Este-Oeste" [Madrid symposium on East-West trade relations and economics].Política Exterior (in Spanish).3 (12):45–47.JSTOR20642878.
^Gennady Gorelik; Antonina W. Bouis (2005).The World of Andrei Sakharov: A Russian Physicist's Path to Freedom. Oxford University Press. p. 356.ISBN9780195156201.Apparently Sakharov did not need to delve any deeper into it for a long time, remaining a totally non-militant atheist with an open heart.
^Sidney D. Drell, George P. Shultz (October 1, 2015).Andrei Sakharov: The Conscience of Humanity. Hoover Press.ISBN9780817918965.I am unable to imagine the universe and human life without some guiding principle, without a source of spiritual 'warmth' that is nonmaterial and not bound by physical laws.
^abZaloga, Steve (17 February 2002).The Kremlin's Nuclear Sword: The Rise and Fall of Russia's Strategic Nuclear Forces 1945–2000. Smithsonian Books.ISBN1588340074.
^Gorelik, Gennady; Bouis, Antonina (2005).The world of Andrei Sakharov: a Russian physicist's path to freedom. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0195156201.
^abcdeGorelik, Gennady (2008)."Andrei Sakharov". In Koertge, Noretta (ed.).New dictionary of scientific biography. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons/Thomson Gale. Archived fromthe original on February 15, 2019. RetrievedJuly 12, 2011.
^Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 177, 70 (1967) [trans. Sov. Phys.-Dokl. 12, 1040 (1968)]
^Sakharov, A. D. (1969).Антикварки во Вселенной [Antiquarks in the Universe].Problems in Theoretical Physics (in Russian):35–44. Dedicated to the 30th anniversary ofN. N. Bogolyubov.
^Paper at seminar, Phys. Inst. Acad. Sci., June 1970
^E. P. Wigner, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 93, 521 (1949); Proc. Natl.Ac'ad. Sci. (U. S.) 38, 449 (1952)
^F. Reines, C.L. Cowan, M. Goldhaber, Phys.Rev. 96 (1954) 1157.
^abCrump, Thomas (2013).Brezhnev and the Decline of the Soviet Union. Routledge Studies in the History of Russia and Eastern Europe. Routledge.ISBN978-1-134-66922-6.
^Gennady Gorelik. The Metamorphosis of Andrei Sakharov. Scientific American, 1999, March.
^Web exhibit "Andrei SAKHAROV: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons, and Human Rights" at American Institute of Physics[1]Archived December 29, 2015, at theWayback Machine
^abcdefRubenstein, Joshua; Gribanov, Alexander (2005).The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov.Joshua Rubenstein, Alexander Gribanov (eds.), Ella Shmulevich, Efrem Yankelevich, Alla Zeide (trans.). New Haven, CN.ISBN978-0-300-12937-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Coleman, Fred (1997).The Decline and Fall of the Soviet Empire: Forty Years That Shook the World, from Stalin to Yeltsin. New York: St. Martin's. p. 116.
^Aaron Curtiss (November 22, 1991)."Sakharov Junction".Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles.Archived from the original on November 2, 2012. RetrievedSeptember 14, 2010.
Dornan, Peter (1975). "Andrei Sakharov: the conscience of a liberal scientist". In Tökés, Rudolf (ed.).Dissent in the USSR: politics, ideology, and people. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 354–417.ISBN978-0-8018-1661-1.
Drell, Sidney; Kapitsa, Sergei (eds.) (1991).Sahkarov Remembered.Springer.ISBN978-0-88318-852-1.{{cite book}}:|author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Glazov, Yuri (1985). "Pasternak, Solzhenitsyn, and Sakharov".The Russian Mind Since Stalin's Death. D. Reidel Publishing Company. pp. 158–179.doi:10.1007/978-94-009-5341-3_9.ISBN978-9027718280.
Young, Benjamin (2012)."Andrei Sakharov". In Williams, Robert; Viotti, Paul (eds.).Arms control: history, theory, and policy. ABC-CLIO. pp. 307–309.ISBN978-0275998202.
