Georges André Malraux (/mælˈroʊ/mal-ROH;[1]French:[ʒɔʁʒɑ̃dʁemalʁo]; 3 November 1901 – 23 November 1976) was a French novelist, member of theFrench Resistance, art theorist, andminister of cultural affairs. Malraux's novelLa Condition Humaine (Man's Fate) (1933) is set during the 1927Shanghai uprising and won thePrix Goncourt;L'Espoir (Man's Hope, 1937) arose from his experiences during the Spanish Civil War. After the Second World War he abandoned fiction and wrote several works on art history, collected asLa Psychologie de l'Art (The Voices of Silence, 1953). He was appointed by PresidentCharles de Gaulle as information minister (1945–46) and subsequently as France's first cultural affairs minister during de Gaulle's presidency (1959–1969).
Malraux was born in Paris in 1901, the son of Fernand-Georges Malraux (1875–1930) and Berthe Félicie Lamy (1877–1932). His parents separated in 1905 and eventually divorced. There are suggestions that Malraux's paternal grandfather committed suicide in 1909.[2]
Malraux was raised by his mother, his maternal aunt Marie Lamy and his maternal grandmother, Adrienne Lamy (née Romagna), who had a grocery store in the small town ofBondy (Seine-Saint-Denis).[2][3] His father, a stockbroker, died by suicide in 1930 after the international crash of the stock market and onset of theGreat Depression.[4]
From his childhood, associates noticed that André had marked nervousness and motor and vocal tics. The recent biographerOlivier Todd, who published a book on Malraux in 2005, suggests that he hadTourette syndrome, although that has not been confirmed.[5] The young Malraux left formal education early, but he followed his curiosity through the booksellers and museums in Paris, and explored the city's rich libraries as well.[citation needed]
TheBanteay Srei temple was the subject of a celebrated case ofart theft when André Malraux stole four images ofdevatas in 1923 (he was soon arrested and the figures returned).André Malraux in 1933
Malraux's first published work, an article entitled "The Origins of Cubist Poetry", appeared inFlorent Fels' magazineAction in 1920. This was followed in 1921 by three semi-surrealist tales, one of which, "Paper Moons", was illustrated byFernand Léger. Malraux also frequented the Parisian artistic and literary milieux of the period, meeting figures such asDemetrios Galanis,Max Jacob,François Mauriac,Guy de Pourtalès,André Salmon,Jean Cocteau,Raymond Radiguet,Florent Fels,Pascal Pia,Marcel Arland,Edmond Jaloux, andPierre Mac Orlan.[6] In 1922, Malraux marriedClara Goldschmidt. Malraux and his first wife separated in 1938 but did not divorce until 1947. His daughter from this marriage, Florence (b. 1933), married the filmmakerAlain Resnais.[7] By the age of twenty, Malraux was reading the work of the German philosopherFriedrich Nietzsche who was to remain a major influence on him for the rest of his life.[8] Malraux was especially impressed with Nietzsche's theory of a world in continuous turmoil and his statement "that the individual himself is still the most recent creation" who was completely responsible for all of his actions.[8] Most of all, Malraux embraced Nietzsche's theory of theÜbermensch, the heroic, exalted man who would create great works of art and whose will would allow him to triumph over anything.[9]
T. E. Lawrence, aka "Lawrence of Arabia", has a reputation in France as the man who was supposedly responsible for France's troubles in Syria in the 1920s. An exception was Malraux who regarded Lawrence as a role model, the intellectual-cum-man-of-action and the romantic, enigmatic hero.[10] Malraux often admitted to having a "certain fascination" with Lawrence, and it has been suggested that Malraux's sudden decision to abandon the Surrealist literary scene in Paris for adventure in the Far East was prompted by a desire to emulate Lawrence who began his career as an archaeologist in the Ottoman Empire excavating the ruins of the ancient city ofCarchemish in thevilayet of Aleppo in what is now modern Syria.[11] As Lawrence had first made his reputation in the Near East digging up the ruins of an ancient civilization, it was only natural that Malraux should go to the Far East to likewise make his reputation in Asia digging up ancient ruins.[12] Lawrence considered himself a writer first and foremost while also presenting himself as a man of action, theNietzschean hero who triumphs over both the environment and men through the force of his will, a persona that Malraux consciously imitated.[13] Malraux often wrote about Lawrence, whom he described admiringly as a man with a need for "the absolute", for whom no compromises were possible and for whom going all the way was the only way.[14] Along the same lines, Malraux argued that Lawrence should not be remembered mainly as a guerrilla leader in the Arab Revolt and the British liaison officer with the Emir Faisal, but rather as a romantic, lyrical writer as writing was Lawrence's first passion, which also described Malraux very well.[15] Although Malraux courted fame through his novels, poems and essays on art in combination with his adventures and political activism, he was an intensely shy and private man who kept to himself, maintaining a distance between himself and others.[16] Malraux's reticence led his first wife Clara to later say she barely knew him during their marriage.[16]
In 1923, aged 22, Malraux and Clara left for theFrench Protectorate of Cambodia.[17]Angkor Wat is a huge 12th century temple situated in the old capital of theKhmer Empire. Angkor (Yasodharapura) was "the world's largest urban settlement" in the 11th and 12th centuries supported by an elaborate network of canals and roads across mainland Southeast Asia before decaying and falling into the jungle.[18] The discovery of the ruins of Angkor Wat by Westerners (the Khmers had never fully abandoned the temples of Angkor) in the jungle by the French explorerHenri Mouhot in 1861 had given Cambodia a romantic reputation in France, as the home of the vast, mysterious ruins of the Khmer empire. Upon reaching Cambodia, Malraux, Clara and friend Louis Chevasson undertook an expedition into unexplored areas of the former imperial settlements in search of hidden temples, hoping to find artifacts and items that could be sold to art collectors and museums. At about the same time archaeologists, with the approval of the French government, were removing large numbers of items from Angkor - many of which are now housed in theGuimet Museum in Paris. On his return, Malraux was arrested and charged by French colonial authorities for removing abas-relief from the exquisiteBanteay Srei temple. Although he was guilty, his arrest and imprisonment were deemed inappropriate – for the crime was of no consequence. Clara, his wife, started a campaign for his acquittal and a number of notable arts and literary figures signed a petition defending Malraux: among them wereFrançois Mauriac,André Breton andAndré Gide. Malraux had his sentence reduced to a year, and then suspended.[19]
Malraux's experiences inIndochina led him to become highly critical of the French colonial authorities there. In 1925, with Paul Monin,[20] a progressive lawyer, he helped to organize theYoung Annam League and founded a newspaperL'Indochine to champion Vietnamese independence.[21] After falling foul of the French authorities, Malraux claimed to have crossed over to China where he was involved with theKuomintang and their then allies, the Chinese Communists, in their struggle against the warlords in the Great Northern Expedition before they turned on each other in 1927, which marked the beginning of the Chinese Civil War that was to last on and off until 1949.[22] In fact, Malraux did not first visit China until 1931 and he did not see the bloody suppression of the Chinese Communists by the Kuomintang in 1927 first-hand as he often implied that he did, although he did do much reading on the subject.[23]
On his return to France, Malraux publishedThe Temptation of the West (1926). The work was in the form of an exchange of letters between a Westerner and an Asian, comparing aspects of the two cultures. This was followed by his first novelThe Conquerors (1928), and then byThe Royal Way (1930) which reflected some of his Cambodian experiences.[24] The American literary critic Dennis Roak describedLes Conquérants as influenced byTheSeven Pillars of Wisdom as it was narrated in the present tense "...with its staccato snatches of dialogue and the images of sound and sight, light and darkness, which create a compellingly haunting atmosphere."[15]The Conquerors was set in the summer of 1925 against the backdrop of the general strike called by theChinese Communist Party (CCP) and Kuomintang in Hong Kong and Canton, the novel concerns political intrigue amongst the "anti-imperialist" camp.[25] The novel is narrated by an unnamed Frenchman who travels from Saigon to Hong Kong to Canton to meet an old friend named Garine who is a professional revolutionary working withMikhail Borodin, who in real life was the Comintern's principal agent in China.[25] The novel alternates between depictions of Chinese nationalist militancy and British imperial anxieties.[26] The Kuomintang are depicted rather unflatteringly as conservative Chinese nationalists uninterested in social reform, another faction is led by Hong, a Chinese assassin committed to revolutionary violence for the sake of violence, and only the Communists are portrayed relatively favorably.[27] Much of the dramatic tension between the novel concerns a three-way struggle between the hero, Garine and Borodin who is only interested in using the revolution in China to achieve Soviet foreign policy goals.[27] The fact that the European characters are considerably better drawn than the Asian characters reflected Malraux's understanding of China at the time as more of an exotic place where Europeans played out their own dramas rather than a place to be understood in its own right. Initially, Malraux's writings on Asia reflected the influence ofOrientalism presenting the Far East as strange, exotic, decadent, mysterious, sensuous and violent, but Malraux's picture of China grew somewhat more humanized and understanding as Malraux disregarded his Orientalist and Eurocentric viewpoint in favor of one that presented the Chinese as fellow human beings.[28]
The second of Malraux's Asian novels was the semi-autobiographicalLa Voie Royale which relates the adventures of a Frenchman Claude Vannec who together with his Danish friend Perken head down the royal road of the title into the jungle ofCambodia with the intention of stealing bas-relief sculptures from the ruins of Hindu temples.[29] After many perilous adventures, Vannec and Perken are captured by hostile tribesmen and find an old friend of Perken's, Grabot, who had already been captured for some time.[30] Grabot, a deserter from the French Foreign Legion had been reduced to nothing as his captors blinded him and left him tied to a stake starving, a stark picture of human degradation.[30] The three Europeans escape, but Perken is wounded and dies of an infection.[30] Through ostensibly an adventure novel,La Voie Royale is in fact a philosophical novel concerned with existential questions about the meaning of life.[30] The book was a failure at the time as the publishers marketed it as a stirring adventure story set in far-off, exotic,Cambodia which confused many readers who, instead, found a novel pondering deep philosophical questions.[31]
In his Asian novels Malraux used Asia as a stick to beat Europe with as he argued that after World War I the ideal of progress of a Europe getting better and better for the general advancement of humanity was dead.[32] As such, Malraux now argued that European civilization was faced with aNietzschean void, a twilight world, without God or progress, in which the old values had proven worthless and a sense of spirituality that had once existed was gone.[32] An agnostic, but an intensely spiritual man, Malraux maintained that what was needed was an "aesthetic spirituality" in which love of 'Art' and 'Civilization' would allow one to appreciatele sacré in life, a sensibility that was both tragic and awe-inspiring as one surveyed all of the cultural treasures of the world, a mystical sense of humanity's place in a universe that was as astonishingly beautiful as it was mysterious.[32] Malraux argued that as death is inevitable and in a world devoid of meaning, which thus was "absurd", only art could offer meaning in an "absurd" world.[33] Malraux argued that art transcended time as art allowed one to connect with the past, and the very act of appreciating art was itself an act of art as the love of art was part of a continuation of endless artistic metamorphosis that constantly created something new.[33] Malraux argued that as different types of art went in and out of style, the revival of a style was a metamorphosis as art could never be appreciated in exactly the same way as it was in the past.[33] As art was timeless, it conquered time and death as artworks lived on after the death of the artist.[33] The American literary critic Jean-Pierre Hérubel wrote that Malraux never entirely worked out a coherent philosophy as his mysticalWeltanschauung (world view) was based more upon emotion than logic.[32] In Malraux's viewpoint, of all the professions, the artist was the most important as artists were the explorers and voyagers of the human spirit, as artistic creation was the highest form of human achievement for only art could illustrate humanity's relationship with the universe. As Malraux wrote, "there is something far greater than history and it is the persistence of genius".[32] Hérubel argued that it is fruitless to attempt to criticize Malraux for his lack of methodological consistency as Malraux cultivated a poetical sensibility, a certain lyrical style, that appealed more to the heart than to the brain.[34] Malraux was a proud Frenchman, but he also saw himself as a citizen of the world, a man who loved the cultural achievements of all of the civilizations across the globe.[34] At the same time, Malraux criticized those intellectuals who wanted to retreat into the ivory tower, instead arguing that it was the duty of intellectuals to participate and fight (both metaphorically and literally) in the great political causes of the day, that the only truly great causes were the ones that one was willing to die for.[16]
In 1933 Malraux publishedMan's Fate (La Condition Humaine), a novel about the 1927failed Communist rebellion in Shanghai. Despite Malraux's attempts to present his Chinese characters as more three dimensional and developed than he did inLes Conquérants, his biographer Oliver Todd wrote he could not "quite break clear of a conventional idea of China with coolies, bamboo shoots, opium smokers, destitutes, and prostitutes", which were the standard French stereotypes of China at the time.[35] The work was awarded the 1933Prix Goncourt.[36] After the breakdown of his marriage with Clara, Malraux lived with journalist and novelistJosette Clotis, starting in 1933. Malraux and Josette had two sons: Pierre-Gauthier (1940–1961) and Vincent (1943–1961). During 1944, while Malraux was fighting inAlsace, Josette died, aged 34, when she slipped while boarding a train. His two sons died together in 1961 in an automobile accident. The car they were driving had been given them by Vincent's girlfriend, the wealthy Clara Saint.[37]
On 22 February 1934, Malraux together withÉdouard Corniglion-Molinier embarked on a much publicized expedition to find the lost capital of theQueen of Sheba mentioned in the Old Testament.[38] Saudi Arabia and Yemen were both remote, dangerous places that few Westerners visited at the time, and what made the expedition especially dangerous was while Malraux was searching for the lost cities of Sheba, King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia invaded Yemen, and the ensuingSaudi–Yemeni war greatly complicated Malraux's search.[39] After several weeks of flying over the deserts in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, Malraux returned to France to announce that the ruins he found up in the mountains of Yemen were the capital of the Queen of Sheba.[38] Though Malraux's claim is not generally accepted by archeologists, the expedition bolstered Malraux's fame and provided the material for several of his later essays.[38]
During the 1930s, Malraux was active in the anti-fascistPopular Front in France. At the beginning of theSpanish Civil War he joined theRepublican forces in Spain, serving in and helping to organize the small Spanish Republican Air Force.[40] Curtis Cate, one of his biographers, writes that Malraux was slightly wounded twice during efforts to stop the Battle ofMadrid in 1936 as the Spanish Nationalists attempted to take Madrid, but the historianHugh Thomas argues otherwise.
The French government sent aircraft to Republican forces in Spain, but they were obsolete by the standards of 1936. They were mainlyPotez 540 bombers andDewoitine D.372 fighters. The slow Potez 540 rarely survived three months of air missions, flying at 160 knots against enemy fighters flying at more than 250 knots. Few of the fighters proved to be airworthy, and they were delivered intentionally without guns orgunsights. The Ministry of Defense of France had feared that modern types of planes would easily be captured by the GermanCondor Legion fighting with GeneralFrancisco Franco, and the lesser models were a way of maintaining official "neutrality".[41] The planes were surpassed by more modern types introduced by the end of 1936 on both sides.
The Republic circulated photos of Malraux standing next to some Potez 540 bombers suggesting that France was on their side, at a time when France and the United Kingdom had officially declared neutrality. But Malraux's commitment to the Republicans was personal, like that of many other foreign volunteers, and there was never any suggestion that he was there at the behest of the French Government. Malraux himself was not a pilot, and never claimed to be one, but his leadership qualities seem to have been recognized because he was made Squadron Leader of the 'España' squadron. Acutely aware of the Republicans' inferior armaments, of which outdated aircraft were just one example, he toured the United States to raise funds for the cause. In 1937 he publishedL'Espoir (Man's Hope), a novel influenced by his Spanish war experiences.[42] In July 1937 he attended the Second International Writers' Congress, the purpose of which was to discuss the attitude of intellectuals to the war, held inValencia,Barcelona andMadrid and attended by many writers includingErnest Hemingway,Stephen Spender andPablo Neruda.[43]
Malraux's participation in major historical events such as the Spanish Civil War inevitably brought him determined adversaries as well as strong supporters, and the resulting polarization of opinion has colored, and rendered questionable, much that has been written about his life. Fellow combatants praised Malraux's leadership and sense of camaraderie[44] WhileAndré Marty of theComintern called him as an "adventurer" for his high profile and demands on the Spanish Republican government.[45] The British historianAntony Beevor also claims that "Malraux stands out, not just because he was a mythomaniac in his claims of martial heroism – in Spain and later in the French Resistance – but because he cynically exploited the opportunity for intellectual heroism in the legend of the Spanish Republic."[45]
In any case, Malraux's participation in events such as the Spanish Civil War has tended to distract attention from his important literary achievement. Malraux saw himself first and foremost as a writer and thinker (and not a "man of action" as biographers so often portray him) but his extremely eventful life – a far cry from the stereotype of the French intellectual confined to his study or a Left Bank café – has tended to obscure this fact. As a result, his literary works, including his important works on the theory of art, have received less attention than one might expect, especially in Anglophone countries.[46]
Otto Abetz was the German Ambassador, and produced a series of "black lists" of authors forbidden to be read, circulated or sold in Nazi occupied France. These included anything written by a Jew, a communist, an Anglo-Saxon or anyone else who was anti-Germanic or anti-fascist.Louis Aragon and André Malraux were both on these "Otto Lists" of forbidden authors.[51]
During the war, he worked on his last novel,The Struggle with the Angel, the title drawn from the story of the BiblicalJacob. The manuscript was destroyed by the Gestapo after his capture in 1944. A surviving first section, titledThe Walnut Trees of Altenburg, was published after the war.
Shortly after the war, GeneralCharles de Gaulle appointed Malraux as his Minister for Information (1945–1946). Soon after, he completed his first book on art,The Psychology of Art, published in three volumes (1947–1949). The work was subsequently revised and republished in one volume asThe Voices of Silence (Les Voix du Silence), the first part of which has been published separately asThe Museum without Walls. Other important works on the theory of art were to follow. These included the three-volumeMetamorphosis of the Gods andPrecarious Man and Literature, the latter published posthumously in 1977. In 1948, Malraux married a second time, toMarie-Madeleine Lioux, a concert pianist and the widow of his half-brother, Roland Malraux. They separated in 1966. Subsequently, Malraux lived withLouise de Vilmorin in the Vilmorin family château at Verrières-le-Buisson, Essonne, a suburb southwest of Paris. Vilmorin was best known as a writer of delicate but mordant tales, often set in aristocratic or artistic milieu. Her most famous novel wasMadame de..., published in 1951, which was adapted into the celebrated filmThe Earrings of Madame de... (1953), directed by Max Ophüls and starring Charles Boyer, Danielle Darrieux and Vittorio de Sica. Vilmorin's other works includedJuliette,La lettre dans un taxi,Les belles amours,Saintes-Unefois, andIntimités. Her letters to Jean Cocteau were published after the death of both correspondents. After Louise's death, Malraux spent his final years with her relative, Sophie de Vilmorin.
In 1957, Malraux published the first volume of his trilogy on art entitledThe Metamorphosis of the Gods. The second two volumes (not yet translated into English) were published shortly before he died in 1976. They are entitledL'Irréel andL'Intemporel and discuss artistic developments from the Renaissance to modern times. Malraux also initiated the seriesArts of Mankind, an ambitious survey of world art that generated more than thirty large, illustrated volumes.
When de Gaulle returned to the French presidency in 1958, Malraux became France's firstMinister of Cultural Affairs, a post he held from 1958 to 1969. On 7 February 1962, Malraux was the target of an assassination attempt by theOrganisation armée secrète (OAS), which set off a bomb to his apartment building that failed to kill its intended target, but did leave a four-year-old girl who was living in the adjoining apartment blinded by the shrapnel.[54] Ironically, Malraux was a lukewarm supporter of de Gaulle's decision to grantindependence to Algeria, but the OAS was not aware of this, and had decided to assassinate Malraux as a high-profile minister.
On 23 May 1961, André Malraux's two sons, Gauthier and Vincent, were killed in a car accident.
Among many initiatives, Malraux launched an innovative (and subsequently widely imitated) program to clean the blackened façades of notable French buildings, revealing the natural stone underneath.[55] He also created a number ofmaisons de la culture in provincial cities and worked to preserve France's national heritage by promotingindustrial archaeology.[56] An intellectual who took the arts very seriously, Malraux saw his mission as Culture Minister to preserve France's heritage and to improve the cultural levels of the masses.[57] Malraux's efforts to promote French culture mostly concerned renewing old or building new libraries, art galleries, museums, theatres, opera houses, andmaisons de la culture (centres built in provincial cities that were a mixture of a library, art gallery and theatre).[56] In 1964 he created theInventaire général du patrimoine culturel to record all goods based on archival sources created by human kind throughout France.[58] Film, television and music took less of Malraux's time, and the changing demographics caused by immigration from the Third World stymied his efforts to promote French high culture, as many immigrants from Muslim and African nations did not find French high culture that compelling.[56] A passionate bibliophile, Malraux built up a huge collection of books both as a cultural minister for the nation and as a man for himself.[59]
Malraux was an outspoken supporter of the Bangladesh liberation movement during the 1971Liberation War of Bangladesh and despite his age seriously considered joining the struggle. WhenIndira Gandhi came to Paris in November 1971, there was extensive discussion between them about the situation in Bangladesh.During this post-war period, Malraux published a series of semi-autobiographical works, the first entitledAntimémoires (1967). A later volume in the series,Lazarus, is a reflection on death occasioned by his experiences during a serious illness.La Tête d'obsidienne (1974) (translated asPicasso's Mask) concerns Picasso, and visual art more generally. In his last book, published posthumously in 1977,L'Homme précaire et la littérature, Malraux propounded the theory that there was abibliothèque imaginaire where writers created works that influenced subsequent writers much as painters learned their craft by studying the old masters; once they have understood the work of the old masters, writers would sally forth with the knowledge gained to create new works that added to the growing and never-endingbibliothèque imaginaire.[56] (See alsomusée imaginaire). An elitist who appreciated what he saw as the high culture of all the nations of the world, Malraux was especially interested in art history and archaeology, and saw his duty as a writer to share what he knew with ordinary people.[56] An aesthete, Malraux believed that art was spiritually enriching and necessary for humanity.[60]
Malraux was nominated for theNobel Prize in Literature 94 times.[61] He was an annual contender for the prize in the 1950s and 1960s, but was never awarded. In 1969 he was the main candidate considered for the prize along withSamuel Beckett. His candidacy was supported by some members of the Nobel committee, but was rejected for political reasons by another member, and theSwedish Academy ultimately decided that Beckett should be awarded.[62]
Malraux died inCréteil, near Paris, on 23 November 1976 from alung embolism. He was a heavy smoker and had cancer.[63] He was cremated and his ashes buried in theVerrières-le-Buisson (Essonne) cemetery. In recognition of his contributions to French culture, his ashes were moved to thePanthéon in Paris during 1996, on the twentieth anniversary of his death.
Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding, 1974 (India)
There is a large body of critical commentary on Malraux's literaryœuvre, including his extensive writings on art. However, some of his works, including the last two volumes ofThe Metamorphosis of the Gods (L'Irréel andL'Intemporel), are not yet available in English translation. Malraux's works on the theory of art contain a revolutionary approach to art that challenges the Enlightenment tradition that treats art simply as a source of "aesthetic pleasure". However, as French writerAndré Brincourt has commented, Malraux's books on art have been "skimmed a lot but very little read"[65] (this is especially true in Anglophone countries) and the radical implications of his thinking are often missed. A particularly important aspect of Malraux's thinking about art is his explanation of the capacity of art to transcend time. In contrast to the traditional notion that art endures because it is timeless ("eternal"), Malraux argues that art lives on through metamorphosis – a process of resuscitation (where the work had fallen into obscurity) and transformation in meaning.[66] This idea has also been extended into scholarship about the function of image datasets in art history.[67]
1968, an international Malraux Society was founded in the United States. It produces the journalRevue André Malraux Review, Michel Lantelme, editor, atUniversity of Oklahoma.[68]
Another international Malraux association, theAmitiés internationales André Malraux, is based in Paris.
A French-language website,Site littéraire André Malraux, offers research, information, and critical commentary about Malraux's works.[69]
A quote from Malraux'sAntimémoires is included in the original 1997 English translation ofCastlevania: Symphony of the Night. The quote, "What is a man? A miserable little pile of secrets" is part of a dialogue early in the game betweenRichter andDracula.[70][71]
André Malraux et la modernité - le dernier des romantiques, Centennial Exhibition of his Birth,Musée de la Vie romantique, Paris, 2001, by Solange Thierry, with contributions by Marc Lambron, Solange Thierry, Daniel Marchesseau, Pierre Cabanne, Antoine Terrasse, Christiane Moatti, Gilles Béguin and Germain Viatte (ISBN978-2-87900-558-4)
^Roak, Denis "Malraux and T. E. Lawrence" pages 218-224 fromThe Modern Language Review, Vol. 61, No. 2, April 1966 from page 220.
^Xu, Anne LijingThe Sublime Writer and the Lure of Action: Malraux, Brecht, and Lu Xun on China and Beyond, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2007 page 12.
^abHarris, GeoffreyAndré Malraux: A Reassessment, London: Macmillan 1995 page 45.
^Crean, Jeffrey (2024).The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK:Bloomsbury Academic. p. 50.ISBN978-1-350-23394-2.
^abHarris, GeoffreyAndré Malraux: A Reassessment, London: Macmillan 1995 page 46.
^Xu, Anne LijingThe Sublime Writer and the Lure of Action: Malraux, Brecht, and Lu Xun on China and Beyond, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2007 pages 11 & 13.
^Harris, GeoffreyAndré Malraux: A Reassessment, London: Macmillan 1995 page 69.
^abcdHarris, GeoffreyAndré Malraux: A Reassessment, London: Macmillan 1995 page 70.
^Harris, GeoffreyAndré Malraux: A Reassessment, London: Macmillan 1995 page 71.
^abcdeHérubel, Jean-Pierre "André Malraux and the French Ministry of Cultural Affairs: A Bibliographic Essay" pages 556-575 fromLibraries & Culture, Vol. 35, No. 4 Fall 2000 page 561
^abcdSypher, Wylie "Aesthetic of Doom: Malraux" pages 146-165 fromSalmagundi, No. 68/69, Fall 1985-Winter 1986 page 148.
^abHérubel, Jean-Pierre "André Malraux and the French Ministry of Cultural Affairs: A Bibliographic Essay" pages 556-575 fromLibraries & Culture, Vol. 35, No. 4 Fall 2000 page 562
^Todd, OliverMalraux: A Life, New York: Alfred Knopf, 2005 page 110.
^abcHarris, GeoffreyAndré Malraux: A Reassessment, London: Macmillan 1995 page 118.
^Langlois, WalterIn search of Sheba: an Arabian adventure : André Malraux and Edouard Corniglon-Molinier, Yemen, 1934 Knoxville: Malraux Society, 2006 pages 267-269
^abcdeHérubel, Jean-Pierre "André Malraux and the French Ministry of Cultural Affairs: A Bibliographic Essay" pages 556-575 fromLibraries & Culture, Vol. 35, No. 4 Fall 2000 page 557
^Hérubel, Jean-Pierre "André Malraux and the French Ministry of Cultural Affairs: A Bibliographic Essay" pages 556-575 fromLibraries & Culture, Vol. 35, No. 4 Fall 2000 pages 556-557
^Hérubel, Jean-Pierre "André Malraux and the French Ministry of Cultural Affairs: A Bibliographic Essay" pages 556-575 fromLibraries & Culture, Vol. 35, No. 4 Fall 2000 page 558
^Hérubel, Jean-Pierre "André Malraux and the French Ministry of Cultural Affairs: A Bibliographic Essay" pages 556-575 fromLibraries & Culture, Vol. 35, No. 4 Fall 2000 pages 557-558
