This article is about the Principality of Andorra, a landlocked nation in the eastern Pyrenees, and is not to be confused with the Italian town ofAndora.For other uses, seeAndorra (disambiguation).
The origin of the word Andorra is unknown, although several hypotheses have been proposed. The oldest is one put forward by theGreek historianPolybius (Histories III, 35, 1), who describes the Andosins, anIberianPre-Roman tribe, as historically located in the valleys of Andorra and facing theCarthaginian army in its passage through the Pyrenees during thePunic Wars. The word Andosini or Andosins (Ἀνδοσίνοι) may derive from theBasquehandia, meaning "big" or "giant".[21] The Andorrantoponymy shows evidence of Basque language in the area. Another theory suggests that the word Andorra may derive from the old word Anorra that contains the Basque wordur ("water").[22]
Another theory suggests that Andorra may derive fromArabicad-dārra (الدَّارَة), indicating a vast land which is located among mountains or a thickly wooded place[23] (withad- being thedefinite article). When theMoors conquered the Iberian Peninsula, the valleys of the High Pyrenees were covered by large tracts of forest. These regions were not administered byMuslims, because of the geographic difficulty of direct rule.[24]
Other theories suggest that the term derives from theNavarro-Aragoneseandurrial, which means "land covered with bushes" or "scrubland".[25]
Thefolk etymology holds that Charlemagne had named the region as a reference to theBiblicalCanaanite valley ofEndor or Andor (where theMidianites had been defeated), a name bestowed by his heir and sonLouis the Pious after defeating the Moors in the "wild valleys of Hell".[26]
Roc de les Bruixes prehistorical sanctuary inCanillo (detail)
La Balma de laMargineda, found by archaeologists atSant Julià de Lòria, was settled in 9,500 BCE as a passing place between the two sides of the Pyrenees. The seasonal camp was perfectly located for hunting and fishing by the groups of hunter-gatherers fromAriege andSegre.[27]
Other archaeological deposits include the Tombs ofSegudet (Ordino) and Feixa del Moro (Sant Julià de Lòria), both dated in 4900–4300 BCE as an example of theUrn culture in Andorra.[28][29] The model of small settlements began to evolve to complex urbanism during theBronze Age.Metallurgical items of iron, ancient coins, and reliquaries can be found in theancient sanctuaries scattered around the country.
The sanctuary of Roc de les Bruixes (Stone of the Witches) is perhaps the most important archeological complex of this age in Andorra, located in the parish ofCanillo, about the rituals of funerals, ancient scripture and engraved stonemurals.[30][29]
The inhabitants of the valleys were traditionally associated with theIberians and historically located in Andorra as the Iberian tribe Andosins or Andosini (Ἀνδοσίνους) during the 7th and 2nd centuries BC. Influenced by theCeltic,Aquitanian,Basque andIberian languages, the locals developed some current toponyms. Early writings and documents relating to this group of people goes back to the second century BC by the Greek writerPolybius in hisHistories during thePunic Wars.[31][32][29][33]
Some of the most significant remains of this era are the Castle of the Roc d'Enclar (part of the earlyMarca Hispanica),[34] l'Anxiu inLes Escaldes and Roc de L'Oral inEncamp.[29][33]
The presence ofRoman influence is recorded from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE. The places with the most Roman presence are in Camp Vermell (Red Field) inSant Julià de Lòria, and in some places in Encamp and in the Roc d'Enclar. People continued trading, mainly with wine and cereals, with the Roman cities ofUrgellet (the present-dayLa Seu d'Urgell) and across Segre through thevia romana Strata Ceretana (also known as Strata Confluetana).[29][35][34]
Visigoths and Carolingians: the legend of Charlemagne
Tradition holds that Charles the Great (Charlemagne) granted a charter to the Andorran people for a contingent of 5,000 soldiers under the command of Marc Almugaver, in return for fighting against theMoors nearPorté-Puymorens (Cerdanya).[37]
The six old parishes, each named for theirpatron saint, as depicted in theActa de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell (839)
Andorra remained part of theFrankishMarca Hispanica, the buffer zone between theFrankish Empire and the Muslim territories, Andorra being part of the territory ruled by theCount of Urgell and eventually the bishop of the Diocese of Urgell. Tradition also holds that it was guaranteed by the son of Charlemagne,Louis the Pious, writing theCarta de Poblament or a localmunicipal charterc. 805.[38]
In 988, CountBorrell II of Urgell gave the Andorran valleys to the Diocese of Urgell in exchange for land inCerdanya.[39] Since then, the bishop of Urgell, based in Seu d'Urgell, has beenco-prince of Andorra.[40]
The first document that mentions Andorra as a territory is theActa de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell (Deed of Consecration and Endowment of the Cathedral of La Seu d'Urgell). The document, dated 839, depicts the six oldparishes of the Andorran valleys that made up the country's administrative division.[41]
Middle Ages: The Paréages and the founding of the Co-Principality
Sant Joan de Caselles church, dating from the 11th century, part of the Andorran Romanesque heritage
Before 1095, Andorra had no military protection, and the bishop of Urgell, who knew that the count of Urgell wanted to reclaim the Andorran valleys,[40] asked theLord of Caboet for help and protection. In 1095, the lord of Caboet and the bishop of Urgell signed under oath a declaration of their co-sovereignty over Andorra.Arnalda de Caboet, daughter of Arnau of Caboet, married the viscount of Castellbò. Their daughter,Ermessenda de Castellbò,[42] married thecount of Foix,Roger-Bernard II. Roger-Bernard II and Ermessenda shared rule over Andorra with the bishop of Urgell.
In the 13th century, a military dispute arose between the bishop of Urgell and the count of Foix as aftermath of theCathar Crusade. The conflict was resolved in 1278 with the mediation of theking of Aragon,Peter III, between the bishop and the count, by the signing of thefirst paréage, which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count of Foix[40] (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the bishop of Urgell, inCatalonia. This gave the principality its territory and political form.[41][43]
A second paréage was signed in 1288 after a dispute when the count of Foix ordered the construction of a castle in Roc d'Enclar.[41][43] The document was ratified by the noble notaryJaume Orig of Puigcerdà, and construction of military structures in the country was prohibited.[44][41]
In 1364, the political organisation of the country named the figure of thesyndic (now spokesman and president of the parliament) as representative of the Andorrans to their co-princes, making possible the creation oflocal departments (comuns, quarts and veïnats). After being ratified by Bishop Francesc Tovia and CountJohn I, the Consell de la Terra orConsell General de les Valls (General Council of the Valleys) was founded in 1419, the second oldest parliament in Europe. The syndic Andreu d'Alàs and the General Council organised the creation of theJustice Courts (La Cort de Justicia) in 1433 with the co-princes and the collection of taxes like foc i lloc (literally "fire and site", a national tax active since then).[45][36]
The Catalan Pyrenees were embryonic of theCatalan language at the end of the 11th century. Andorra was influenced by this language, which was adopted locally decades before it expanded to the rest of the Crown of Aragon.[49]
The local economy during theMiddle Ages was based on livestock, agriculture, furs and weavers. Later, at the end of the 11th century, the firstiron foundries began to appear in Northern Parishes likeOrdino, much appreciated by the master artisans who developed the art of the forges, an important economic activity in the country from the 15th century.[36]
With the passage of time, the co-title to Andorra passed to the kings ofNavarre. AfterHenry III of Navarre becameking of France, he issued an edict in 1607 that established the head of the French state and the bishop of Urgell asCo-Princes of Andorra, a political arrangement that still holds.
During 1617, communal councils form the sometent (popular militia or army) to deal with the rise of bandolerisme (brigandage) and the Consell de la Terra was defined and structured in terms of its composition, organisation and competences current today.[53]
Andorra continued with the same economic system that it had during the 12th–14th centuries with a large production of metallurgy (fargues, a system similar to Farga Catalana) and with the introduction of tobacco circa 1692 and import trade. In 1371 and 1448, the co-princes ratified the fair of Andorra la Vella, the most important annual national festival commercially ever since.[54][55][56]
Manor house of the Rossell family inOrdino,Casa Rossell, built in 1611. The family also owned the largest ironwork forges in Andorra as Farga Rossell and Farga del Serrat.[57]
The country had a unique and experienced guild of weavers, Confraria de Paraires i Teixidors, inEscaldes-Engordany. Founded in 1604, it took advantage of the local thermal waters. By this time, the country was characterised by the social system of prohoms (wealthy society) and casalers (rest of the population with smaller economic acquisition), deriving from the tradition ofpubilla andhereu.[58][59][60][61]
Three centuries after its foundation, the Consell de la Terra located its headquarters and the Tribunal de Corts inCasa de la Vall in 1702. Themanor house built in 1580 served as a noble fortress of the Busquets family. Inside the parliament was placed the Closet of the Six Keys (Armari de les sis claus), representative of each Andorran parish, where theAndorran constitution and other documents and laws were later kept.[62][63]
In both theReapers' War and theWar of the Spanish Succession, the Andorran people (while professing to be a neutral country) supported theCatalans who saw theirrights reduced in1716. The reaction was the promotion of Catalan writings in Andorra, with cultural works such as theBook of Privileges (Llibre de Privilegis de 1674),Manual Digest (1748) by Antoni Fiter i Rossell or thePolità andorrà (1763) by Antoni Puig.[64][65]
19th century: the New Reform and the Andorran Question
After theFrench Revolution,Napoleon I reestablished the Co-Principate in 1809 and removed the French medieval title. In 1812–1813, theFirst French Empire annexed Catalonia during thePeninsular War (Guerra Peninsular) and divided the region into fourdépartements, with Andorra as a part of the district ofPuigcerdà. In 1814, an imperial decree reestablished the independence and economy of Andorra.[66][67][68]
During this period, Andorra's late medieval institutions and rural culture remained largely unchanged. In 1866, thesyndicGuillem d'Areny-Plandolit led the reformist group in a Council General of 24 members elected by suffrage limited to heads of families. The Council General replaced the aristocratic oligarchy that previously ruled the state.[69]
The New Reform (Nova Reforma) began after ratification by both Co-Princes and established the basis of theconstitution[70] and symbols – such as thetricolour flag – of Andorra. A newservice economy arose as a demand of the valley inhabitants and began to build infrastructure such as hotels, spa resorts, roads and telegraph lines.[71][72][73]
The authorities of the Co-Princes banned casinos and betting houses throughout the country. The ban resulted in an economic conflict and the Revolution of 1881, which began when revolutionaries assaulted the house of the syndic on 8 December 1880, and established the Provisional Revolutionary Council led by Joan Pla i Calvo and Pere Baró i Mas. The Provisional Revolutionary Council allowed for the construction of casinos and spas by foreign companies.[75] From 7 to 9 June 1881, the loyalists ofCanillo andEncamp reconquered the parishes ofOrdino andLa Massana by establishing contact with the revolutionary forces inEscaldes-Engordany.[76] After a day of combat theTreaty of the Bridge of Escalls was signed on 10 June.[77][78][79] The council was replaced and new elections were held. The economic situation worsened, as the populace was divided over theQüestió d'Andorra – the "Andorran Question" in relation to theEastern Question.[80] The struggles continued between pro-bishops, pro-French, and nationalists based on the troubles of Canillo in 1882 and 1885.[81][82][83]
Andorra participated in the cultural movement of the CatalanRenaixença. Between 1882 and 1887, the first academic schools were formed where trilingualism coexisted with the official language, Catalan.Romantic authors fromFrance andSpain reported the awakening of thenational consciousness of the country.Jacint Verdaguer lived in Ordino during the 1880s where he wrote and shared works related to the Renaixença with writer and photographerJoaquim de Riba.
In 1848,Fromental Halévy had premiered the operaLe val d'Andorre to great success in Europe, where the national consciousness of the valleys was exposed in the romantic work during the Peninsular War.[84][85][86]
20th and 21st century: Modernisation of the country and constitutional Andorra
Boris Skossyreff, briefly self-proclaimed King of Andorra in 1934
In 1933 France occupied Andorra following social unrest which occurred before elections due to theRevolution of 1933 and the FHASA strikes (Vagues de FHASA); the revolt led byJoves Andorrans (alabour union group related to the SpanishCNT andFAI) called for political reforms,[87] theuniversal suffrage vote of all Andorrans and acted in defence of the rights of local and foreign workers during the construction of FHASA's hydroelectric power station inEncamp.[88] On 5 April 1933 Joves Andorrans seized the Andorran Parliament.[89] These actions were preceded by the arrival of Colonel René-Jules Baulard with 50gendarmes and the mobilisation of 200 local militias or sometent led by the Síndic Francesc Cairat.[90]
On 6 July 1934, adventurer and noblemanBoris Skossyreff, with his promise of freedoms and modernisation of the country and wealth through the establishment of a tax haven and foreign investments, received the support of the members of the General Council to proclaim himself the sovereign of Andorra. On 8 July 1934 Boris issued a proclamation in Urgell, declaring himself Boris I, King of Andorra,[91] simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell and approving the King's constitution on 10 July.[92] He was arrested by the Co-Prince and BishopJustí Guitart i Vilardebó and their authorities on 20 July and ultimately expelled fromSpain.[93] From 1936 until 1940, a French military detachment ofGarde Mobile led by well-known Colonel René-Jules Baulard was garrisoned in Andorra to secure the principality against disruption from theSpanish Civil War[94] andFrancoist Spain[95] and also face the rise ofRepublicanism in the aftermath of the 1933 Revolution.[96] During the Spanish Civil War, the inhabitants of Andorra welcomed refugees from both sides, and many of them settled permanently in the country thus contributing to the subsequent economic boom and the entry into thecapitalist era of Andorra.[97][98] Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war.[99]
Enthronement as Co-Prince in 1942 of BishopRamón Iglesias (centre). The local comite was led by Francesc Cairat (left), theFirst General Syndic with the longest regencie, from 1936 to 1960.[100]
During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route betweenVichy France and Francoist Spain.[101] Many Andorrans criticised the passivity of the General Council for impeding both the entry and expulsion of foreigners and refugees, committing economic crimes,[102] reducing the rights of citizens[103] and sympathy withFrancoism.[104][105] General Council members justified the council's political and diplomatic actions as necessary for Andorra's survival and the protection of its sovereignty. Andorra was relatively unscathed by the two world wars and the Spanish Civil War.[105][106] Certaingroups formed to help victims of oppression inNazi-occupied countries, while participating in smuggling to help Andorra survive. Among the most prominent was theHostal Palanques Evasion Network Command, which, in contact with the BritishMI6, helped almost 400 fugitives,[107] among whom wereAllied military personnel.[108][109] The Command remained active between 1941 and 1944, although there were struggles withpro-Axis informers andGestapo agents in Andorra.[110]
Co-PrinceCharles de Gaulle in the streets of Sant Julià de Lòria in Andorra, October 1967
In the capital city there was a smuggling black market of propaganda, culture and cinematic art not favourable to totalitarian regimes, promulgated in such places as the Hotel Mirador or the Casino Hotel,[111] as a meeting place forFree French forces and a route for escorting downed Allied pilots out of Europe.[112] The network was maintained after the war, when film societies were formed, where movies, music and bookscensored in Franco's Spain were imported, becoming an anti-censorship attraction for the Catalan or foreign public even within Andorra.[98] The Andorran Group (Agrupament Andorrà), ananti-fascist organisation linked to the Occitanie'sFrench Resistance, accused the French representative (veguer) of collaboration withNazism.[113]
The Andorran opening to thecapitalist economy resulted in two axes: mass tourism and the country's tax exemption. The first steps towards the capitalist boom date from the 1930s, with the construction of FHASA[114] and the creation of professional banking[115] withBanc Agrícol (1930) andCrèdit Andorrà (1949), later withBanca Mora (1952),Banca Cassany (1958) and SOBANCA (1960). Shortly after, activities such as skiing and shopping helped the country become a tourist attraction, with the inauguration of ski resorts and cultural entities in the late 1930s.[114][116] A revived hotel industry also developed. In April 1968 a social health insurance system was created (CASS).[117]
The Andorran government necessarily involved planning, projection and forecasts for the future: with the official visit of the French co-princeCharles de Gaulle in 1967 and 1969; it was given approval for the economic boom and national demands within the framework ofhuman rights and international openness.[120][121]
Andorra experienced an era commonly known as the "Andorran dream"[122] (similar to theAmerican Dream) along with theTrente Glorieuses: mass culture rooted itself in the country experiencing radical changes in the economy and culture. Proof of this wasRàdio Andorra, the top musical radio station in Europe in this period,[123] with guests and speakers of great importance promoting musical hits fromchanson française,swing,rhythm & blues,jazz,rock and roll andAmerican country music.[124] During this period Andorra achieved a GDP per capita and a life expectancy higher than most standard countries of the time.[114][125]
Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France, Spain andPortugal. But in recent times its thriving tourist industry, along with developments in transport and communications, have removed the country from its isolation. Since 1976 the country has seen the need to reform Andorran institutions due to anachronisms in sovereignty, human rights and the balance of powers as well as the need to adapt legislation to modern demands. In 1982 a first separation of powers took place when instituting the Govern d'Andorra, under the name of the executive board (Consell Executiu), chaired by the first prime ministerÒscar Ribas Reig with the co-princes' approval.[126] In 1989 the Principality signed an agreement with theEuropean Economic Community to regularise trade relations.[127]
Its political system was modernised in 1993 after theAndorran constitutional referendum, when theconstitution was drafted by the co-princes and the General Council and approved on 14 March[128] by 74.2% of voters, with a 76% turnout.[129] Thefirst elections under the new constitution were held later in the year.[128] The same year, Andorra became a member of the United Nations and theCouncil of Europe.[130]
Andorra formalised diplomatic relations with the United States in 1996, participating in the 51stUN General Assembly. First General SyndicMarc Forné took part in a speech in Catalan in the General Assembly to defend the reform of the organisation, and after three days he took part in theParliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe to defend Andorra's linguistic rights and economy.[131] In 2006 a monetary agreement with the European Union was formalised that allows Andorra to use theeuro officially, as well as minting its own euro coins.[132][133]
The Parliament of Andorra is known as theGeneral Council. The General Council consists of between 28 and 42 councillors.[134] The councillors serve for four-year terms, and elections are held between the 30th and 40th days following the dissolution of the previous Council.
Half are elected in equal numbers by each of the seven administrative parishes, and the other half of the councillors are elected in a single national constituency. Voters vote for parties, not candidates; a voter votes for a party for the parish councillors and a party for the at-large councilors, and the winners come from party lists. Fifteen days after the election, the councillors hold their inauguration. During this session, theGeneral Syndic, who is the head of the General Council, and the Subsyndic General, his assistant, are elected. Eight days later, the Council convenes once more. During this session, the prime minister is chosen from among the councillors.
Casa de la Vall, the historical and ceremonial Andorran Parliament
Candidates can be proposed by a minimum of one-fifth of the councillors. The Council then elects the candidate with the absolute majority of votes to be prime minister. The Syndic General then notifies the co-princes, who in turn appoint the elected candidate as the prime minister of Andorra. The General Council is also responsible for proposing and passing laws. Bills may be presented to the council as Private Members' Bills by three of the local Parish Councils jointly or by at least one tenth of the citizens of Andorra.
The council also approves the annual budget of the principality. The government must submit the proposed budget for parliamentary approval at least two months before the previous budget expires. If the budget is not approved by the first day of the next year, the previous budget is extended until a new one is approved. Once any bill is approved, the Syndic General is responsible for presenting it to the co-princes so that they may sign and enact it.
If the prime minister is not satisfied with the council, he may request that the co-princes dissolve the council and order new elections.[135] In turn, the councillors have the power to remove the prime minister from office. After a motion of censure is approved by at least one-fifth of the councillors, the council will vote and if it receives the absolute majority of votes, the prime minister is removed.[136]
The judiciary is composed of the Magistrates Court, the Criminal Law Court, the High Court of Andorra, and the Constitutional Court. The High Court of Justice is composed of five judges: one appointed by the prime minister, one each by the co-princes, one by the Syndic General, and one by the judges and magistrates. It is presided over by the member appointed by the Syndic General and the judges hold office for six-year terms.[137]
The magistrates and judges are appointed by the High Court, as is the president of the Criminal Law Court. The High Court also appoints members of the Office of the Attorney General. The Constitutional Court is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and reviewing all appeals of unconstitutionality against laws and treaties. It is composed of four judges, one appointed by each of the co-princes and two by the General Council. They serve eight-year terms. The Court is presided over by one of the judges on a two-year rotation so that each judge at one point will preside over the Court.
Andorra does not have its own armed forces,[3] although there is a small ceremonial army. Responsibility for defending the nation rests primarily with France and Spain.[138] However, in case of emergencies or natural disasters, theSometent (an alarm) is called and all able-bodied men between 21 and 60 of Andorran nationality must serve.[139][140] This is why all Andorrans, and especially the head of each house (usually the eldest able-bodied man of a house) should, by law, keep a rifle, even though the law also states that the police will offer a firearm in case of need.[140] Andorra is a full member of the United Nations (UN), theOrganisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and has a special agreement with the European Union (EU). After the constitution was ratified, Andorra would later establish diplomatic relations with their major allies aside from neighbours France and Spain such as the United Kingdom in 1994 and the United States in 1995. It also has observer status at theWorld Trade Organisation (WTO).[141] On 16 October 2020, Andorra became the 190th member of theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF), during theCOVID-19 pandemic.[142][143]
Andorra has a small army, which has historically been raised or reconstituted at various dates, but has never in modern times amounted to a standing army. The basic principle of Andorran defence is that all able-bodied men are available to fight if called upon by the summoning of theSometent (a civil defence organisation of Andorra, made up of the heads of households). The Sometent was used sparingly against French "Lutheran" raids during the late 16th century. Being alandlocked country, Andorra has no navy.
BeforeWorld War I, Andorra maintained an armedmilitia force of about 600 part-time militiamen under the supervision of a Captain (Capità or Cap de Sometent) and a Lieutenant (Desener or Lloctinent del Capità). This body was not liable for service outside the principality and was commanded by two officials (veguers) appointed by France and the Bishop of Urgell.[144]
In the modern era, the army has consisted of a very small body of volunteers willing to undertakeceremonial duties. Uniforms and weaponry were handed down from generation to generation within families and communities.[145]
The army's role in internal security was largely taken over by the formation of thePolice Corps of Andorra in 1931. Brief civil disorder associated with the elections of 1933 led to assistance being sought from the FrenchNational Gendarmerie,[146] with a detachment resident in Andorra for two months under the command of René-Jules Baulard.[citation needed] The Andorran Police was reformed in the following year, with eleven soldiers appointed to supervisory roles.[147] The force consisted of sixcorporals, one for each parish (although there are currently seven parishes, there were only six until 1978), plus four junior staff officers to co-ordinate action, and a commander with the rank of major. It was the responsibility of the six corporals, each in his own parish, to be able to raise a fighting force from among the able-bodied men of the parish.
The only permanent section of the present-day Sometent is a twelve-man ceremonial unit. However, all able-bodied men are technicallyavailable for military service,[148] with a requirement for each family to have access to a firearm. Anarea weapon, such as a shotgun per household, is unregulated; however,ranged weapons, such as pistols and rifles, require a licence.[145] The army has not fought for more than 700 years, and its main responsibility is to present theflag of Andorra at official ceremonial functions.[149][150] According toMarc Forné Molné, Andorra's military budget is strictly from voluntary donations, and the availability of full-time volunteers.[151]
The only more recent general emergency call to the Sometent was given during the floods of 1982 in the Catalan Pyrenees (when 12 Andorran citizens perished),[152] to help the population and establish a public order along with the local police units.[153]
Andorra is one of the 46 member states of the Council of Europe, having joined on 10 November 1994. Throughits membership in the Council of Europe, Andorra is or has been involved in the following areas:
Prevention of torture: Inspections by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture in detention facilities such as juvenile centres, immigration detention sites, police stations, and psychiatric hospitals.
Fight against racism: Monitoring and advice provided by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance.
Protection of social rights: Oversight by the European Committee of Social Rights under the European Social Charter, which guarantees social and economic human rights.
Protection of minorities: Although the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities sets up a monitoring system, Andorra has not signed this convention.
Anti-corruption: Evaluations by the Group of States against Corruption (GRECO) to improve national capacities against corruption.
Countering money laundering and terrorism financing: Reviews by the MONEYVAL Committee and monitoring by COP198.
Democracy through law: Advisory support from the Venice Commission, which assists in aligning constitutional frameworks with European democratic standards.
Combating human trafficking: Monitoring by the Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA) through regular evaluation reports.
Enhancing the justice system: Assessments by the European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice (CEPEJ) and the Consultative Council of European Prosecutors (CCPE) to improve judicial efficiency.
Cultural contributions: In 1994, Andorra donated "Incles Valley, Andorra" (oil on canvas by Francesc Galobardes) as part of the council's art collection, symbolising its commitment to human rights and cultural heritage.
Andorra's representation in the Council includes:
Committee of Ministers: Represented by Imma Tor Faus (Minister for Foreign Affairs) and Andreu Jordi (Ambassador and Permanent Representative).
Parliamentary Assembly: A delegation of 2 representatives and 2 substitutes.
Congress of Local and Regional Authorities: A delegation of 2 representatives and 2 substitutes.
European Court of Human Rights: Represented by Judge Pere Pastor Vilanova, with 14 applications allocated to a decision body in 2024.
Commissioner for Human Rights: Conducts visits to monitor the human rights situation and engage in dialogue with national authorities and civil society.
Council of Europe Treaties: Andorra has ratified and signed several treaties that reinforce its commitment to the council's principles.
For 2025, the Council of Europe's budget is €655.7 million, with Andorra contributing €368,842.[154]
National Police patrolling the central area of the capital city
Andorra maintains a small but modern and well-equipped internal police force, with around 240 police officers supported by civilian assistants. The principal services supplied by the corps are uniformed community policing, criminal detection, border control, and traffic policing. There are also small specialist units including police dogs, mountain rescue, and a bomb disposal team.[155]
The Andorran Fire Brigade, with headquarters atSanta Coloma, operates from four modern fire stations, and has a staff of around 120 firefighters. The service is equipped with 16 heavy appliances (fire tenders, turntable ladders, and specialist four-wheel drive vehicles), four light support vehicles (cars and vans) and four ambulances.[157]
Historically, the families of the six ancient parishes of Andorra maintained local arrangements to assist each other in fighting fires. The first fire pump purchased by the government was acquired in 1943. Serious fires which lasted for two days in December 1959 led to calls for a permanent fire service, and the Andorran Fire Brigade was formed on 21 April 1961.[158]
The fire service maintains full-time cover with five fire crews on duty at any time: two at the brigade's headquarters in Santa Coloma, and one crew at each of the other three fire stations.[159]
Due to its location in the easternPyrenees mountain range, Andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains, the highest being theComa Pedrosa at 2,946 metres (9,665 ft), and the average elevation of Andorra is 1,996 metres (6,549 ft).[160] These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a Y shape that combine into one as the main stream, theGran Valira river, leaves the country for Spain (at Andorra's lowest point of 840 m or 2,756 ft). Andorra's land area is 468 km2 (181 sq mi).
Phytogeographically, Andorra belongs to the Atlantic European province of theCircumboreal Region within theBoreal Kingdom. According to theWWF, the territory of Andorra belongs to theecoregion ofPyrenees conifer and mixed forests.[161] Andorra had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.45/10, ranking it 127th globally out of 172 countries.[162] In Andorraforest cover is around 34% of the total land area, equivalent to 16,000 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, which was unchanged from 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 16,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 0 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to beprimary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 0% of the forest area was found within protected areas.[163][164]
Andorra hasalpine,continental andoceanic climates, depending on altitude. Its higher elevation means there is, on average, more snow in winter and it is slightly cooler in summer. The diversity of landmarks, the different orientation of the valleys and the irregularity relief typical of theMediterranean climates make the country have a great diversity ofmicroclimates that hinder the general dominance of thehigh mountain climate. The great differences of altitude in the minimum and maximum points, together with the influence of a Mediterranean climate, develop the climate of the Andorran Pyrenees.
When in precipitation, a global model characterised by convective and abundant rains can be defined during spring and summer, which can last until autumn (May, June and August are usually the rainiest months). In winter, however, it is less rainy, except in the highlands, subject to the influence of fronts from theAtlantic, which explains the great amount of snowfall in the Andorran mountains. The temperature regime is characterised, broadly, by a temperate summer and a long and cold winter, in accordance with the mountainous condition of the Principality.[166]
Climate data for Andorra La Vella (Roc de Sant Pere), elevation: 1,075m (1971–2000, extremes 1934–present)
Source 2: Meteo Climat (record highs and lows)[168]
As a small mountainous country, Andorra is highly vulnerable toclimate change. Temperatures in its high-altitude regions have risen by about 0.17 °C per decade, while annual rainfall has decreased by 49 mm. These shifts are impacting water resources and snow cover, which are key elements for Andorra's tourism-driven economy.[169] The number of days with enough snow forskiing is declining, and thesnow line is retreating to higher altitudes.[170]
Although its nationalgreenhouse gas emissions are one of the lowest in the world (534 thousand tonnes emitted in 2023),[171] Andorra has a strong climate change mitigation strategy, with a focus onrenewable energy and energy efficiency. In itsNationally Determined Contribution, Andorra has committed to reducing its emissions by 55% by 2030, and tocarbon neutrality by 2050.[172] However, the adaptation part of the strategy is still in early stages and may be difficult and costly to implement. Given the country's reliance on tourism, speeding up adaptation is essential for building a more resilient economy.[170]
Tourism, the mainstay of Andorra's economy, accounts for roughly 80% of GDP. An estimated 8 million tourists visit annually,[19] attracted by Andorra'sduty-free status and by its summer and winter resorts.
One of the main sources of income in Andorra is from ski resorts, which total over 175 km (109 mi) of ski grounds. The sport brings in over 7 million visitors annually and an estimated 340 million euros per year, sustaining 2,000 direct and 10,000 indirect jobs at present since 2007.[173]
The banking sector, with itstax haven status, also contributes substantially to the economy with revenues raised exclusively through import tariffs (the financial and insurance sector accounts for approximately 19% of GDP[174]). However, during theEuropean sovereign-debt crisis of the 21st century, the tourist industry suffered a decline, partly caused by a drop in the prices of goods in Spain, undercuttingduty-free shopping and increasing unemployment. On 1 January 2012, a business tax of 10% was introduced,[175] followed by a sales tax of 2% a year later, which raised just over 14 million euros in its first quarter.[176]
Agricultural production is limited; only 1.7%[177] of the land is arable, and most food has to be imported. Some tobacco is grown locally. The principal livestock activity is domestic sheep raising. Manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra's natural resources include hydroelectric power, mineral water, timber, iron ore, and lead.[3]
Andorra is not a member of the European Union, but enjoys aspecial relationship with it, such as being treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural products. Andorra lacked a currency of its own and used both theFrench franc and theSpanish peseta in banking transactions until 31 December 1999, when both currencies were replaced by the EU's single currency, the euro. Coins and notes of both the franc and the peseta remained legal tender in Andorra until 31 December 2002. Andorra negotiated to issueits own euro coins, beginning in early 2015.[178]
Andorra has historically had one of the world's lowest unemployment rates. In 2023 it stood at 1.5%.[179]
On 31 May 2013, it was announced that Andorra intended to legislate for the introduction of an income tax by the end of June, against a background of increasing dissatisfaction with the existence of tax havens among EU members.[180] The announcement was made following a meeting in Paris between the Prime MinisterAntoni Martí and the French President and Prince of AndorraFrançois Hollande. Hollande welcomed the move as part of a process of Andorra "bringing its taxation in line with international standards".[181]
By the mid-2010s, the financial system comprised five banking groups,[182] one specialised credit entity, eight investment undertaking management entities, three asset management companies, and 29 insurance companies, 14 of which are branches of foreign insurance companies authorised to operate in the principality.[174] The last mergers between banks took place in 2022, bringing the Andorran financial sector to currently have 3 active banking groups.[183]
Two-thirds of residents lack Andorran nationality and do not have the right to vote in communal elections. Moreover, they are not allowed to be elected as prime minister[187] or to own more than 33% of the capital stock of a privately held company.[188][189][190][191]
The largest national groups in Andorra are Spanish (34.3%), Andorrans (32.1%), Portuguese (10%), and French (5.6%). The remaining 18% of the population includes British, Dutch, Germans, Italians and other Europeans, as well as Argentinians, Chileans, Indians, Moroccans and Uruguayans.[19]
The historic andofficial language isCatalan, aRomance language. The Andorran government encourages the use of Catalan. It funds a Commission for CatalanToponymy in Andorra (Catalan:Comissió de Toponímia d'Andorra), and provides free Catalan classes to assist immigrants. Andorran television and radio stations use Catalan.
Because of immigration, historical links, and close geographic proximity, Spanish, Portuguese and French are commonly spoken. Most Andorran residents can speak one or more of these, in addition to Catalan. English is less commonly spoken among the general population, though it is understood to varying degrees in the major tourist resorts.[citation needed] Andorra is one of only four European countries (together with France,Monaco, andTurkey)[193] that have never signed theCouncil of Europe Framework Convention on National Minorities.[194]
Few official statistics are available on religion; estimates of the Catholic population in 2020 range from 89.5%[195] to 99.21%.[196] The patron saint isOur Lady of Meritxell. There are also members of various Protestant denominations and small numbers ofHindus, andBahá'ís.[197][198] In 2022 there were approximately 2000Muslims and roughly 100Jews.[199][200]
The Qualified Education Law (llei qualificada d'educació) of Andorra was passed in 1993. It guarantees free, public education from age four until the end of compulsory schooling.[201]
Children between the ages of 6 and 16 are required by law to have full-time education.[201] Education up to secondary level is provided free of charge by the government.
There are three systems of school, Andorran, French and Spanish, which use Catalan, French and Spanish languages respectively, as the main language of instruction. Parents may choose which system their children attend. All schools are built and maintained by Andorran authorities, but teachers in the French and Spanish schools are paid for the most part by France and Spain. 39% of Andorran children attend Andorran schools, 33% attend French schools, and 28% Spanish schools.
TheUniversitat d'Andorra (UdA) is the state public university and is the only university in Andorra. It was established in 1997. The university provides first-level degrees in nursing, computer science, business administration, and educational sciences, in addition to higher professional education courses. The only two graduate schools in Andorra are the Nursing School and the School of Computer Science, the latter having a PhD programme.
The geographical complexity of the country as well as the small number of students prevents the University of Andorra from developing a full academic programme, and it serves principally as a centre for virtual studies, connected to Spanish and French universities. The Virtual Studies Centre (Centre d'Estudis Virtuals) at the university runs approximately 20 different academic degrees at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels in fields including tourism, law, Catalanphilology, humanities, psychology, political sciences, audiovisual communication, telecommunications engineering, and East Asia studies. The centre also runs various postgraduate programmes and continuing-education courses for professionals.
Until the 20th century, Andorra had very limited transport links to the outside world, and development of the country was affected by its physical isolation. The nearest major airports at Toulouse and Barcelona are both three hours' drive from Andorra.
Andorra has a road network of 279 km (173 mi), of which 76 km (47 mi) is unpaved. The two main roads out ofAndorra la Vella are the CG-1 to theSpanish border nearSant Julià de Lòria, and the CG-2 to theFrench border via the Envalira Tunnel nearEl Pas de la Casa.[202] Bus services cover all metropolitan areas and many rural communities, with services on most major routes running half-hourly or more frequently during peak travel times. There are frequent long-distance bus services from Andorra toBarcelona andToulouse, plus a daily tour from the former city. Bus services mostly are run by private companies, but some local ones are operated by the government.
A train atLatour-de-Carol (La Tor de Querol), one of the two stations serving Andorra. Andorra has no railways, although the line connecting Latour-de-Carol andToulouse, which in turn connects to France'sTGVs at Toulouse, runs within two km (one point two mi) of the Andorran border.
Nearby airports located in Spain and France provide access to international flights for the principality. The nearest airports are atPerpignan, France (156 km (97 mi) from Andorra) andLleida, Spain (160 km (99 mi) from Andorra). The largest nearby airports are at Toulouse, France (165 km (103 mi) from Andorra and Barcelona, Spain (215 km (134 mi) from Andorra). There are hourly bus services from both Barcelona and Toulouse airports to Andorra.
RTVA, the public service television and radio broadcaster in AndorraAndorra Telecom, the national telecom company in Andorra
In Andorra, mobile and fixed telephone and internet services are operated exclusively by the Andorran national telecommunications company, SOM, also known asAndorra Telecom (STA). The same company also manages the technical infrastructure for national broadcasting of digital television and radio.[209] In 2010 Andorra became the first country to provide a directoptical fiber link to all homes (FTTH) and businesses.[210]
The first commercial radio station to broadcast wasRadio Andorra, which was active from 1939 to 1981.[211][212][213] On 12 October 1989, the General Council established radio and television as essential public services creating and managing the entity ORTA, becoming on 13 April 2000, in the public companyRàdio i Televisió d'Andorra (RTVA).[214] In 1990, the public radio was founded on the Radio Nacional d'Andorra. As an autochthonous television channel, there is only the national public television network Andorra Televisió, created in 1995.[215] Additional TV and radio stations from Spain and France are available via digital terrestrial television and IPTV.[216]
There are three national newspapers,Diari d'Andorra,El Periòdic d'Andorra, andBondia as well as several local newspapers.[217] The history of the Andorran press begins in the period between 1917 and 1937 with the appearance of several periodicals papers such asLes Valls d'Andorra (1917),Nova Andorra (1932) andAndorra Agrícola (1933).[218] In 1974, thePoble Andorrà became the first regular newspaper in Andorra.[219] There is also anamateur radio society[220] and news agency ANA with independent management.[221]
Andorra is home to folk dances like thecontrapàs andmarratxa, which survive inSant Julià de Lòria especially. Andorran folk music has similarities to the music of its neighbours, but is especiallyCatalan in character, especially in the presence of dances such as thesardana. Other Andorran folk dances include contrapàs inAndorra la Vella and Saint Anne's dance in Escaldes-Engordany. Andorra's national holiday isOur Lady of Meritxell Day, 8 September.[3]
Among the more important festivals and traditions are the Canólich Gathering in May, the Roser d'Ordino in July, the Meritxell Day (National Day of Andorra), the Andorra la Vella Fair, theSant Jordi Day, the Santa Llúcia Fair, the Festivity from La Candelera to Canillo, theCarnival of Encamp, the sung of caramelles, the Festivity ofSant Esteve and the Festa del Poble.[222]
In popular folklore, the best-known Andorran legends are the legend of Charlemagne, according to which this Frankish King would have founded the country, the White Lady ofAuvinyà, theBuner d'Ordino, the legend ofEngolasters Lake and the legend ofOur Lady of Meritxell.
Andorran gastronomy is mainlyCatalan, although it has also adopted other elements ofFrench andItalian cuisines. The cuisine of the country has similar characteristics with the neighbours ofCerdanya andAlt Urgell, with whom it has strong cultural ties. Andorra's cuisine is defined by its mountain valleys. Typical dishes of the country arequinceall-i-oli, duck with winter pear, roast lamb with nuts, pork civet, massegada cake, escarole with pears, duck confit and mushrooms,escudella, spinach with raisins and pine nuts, jelly marmalade, stuffed murgues (mushrooms) with pork,dandelion salad, and Andorran rivertrout. To drink,mulled wine and beer are also popular.[223] Some of the dishes are very common in themountainous regions of Catalonia, such astrinxat,embotits, cooked snails, rice with mushrooms, mountain rice andmató.[224]
Pre-Romanesque andRomanesque art are some of the most important artistic manifestations and characteristics of the Principality. The Romanesque style helps to understand the formation of theparochial communities, the relations of (social and political) power and the national culture. There are a total of forty Romanesque churches that stand out as being small austere ornamentation constructions, as well asbridges, fortresses andmanor houses of the same period.[225][226]
Andorra is famous for itswinter sports. Andorra has the largest territory of ski slopes in thePyrenees (3100 hectares and about 350 km of slopes) and two ski resorts. Grandvalira is the largest and most popular resort. Other popular sports played in Andorra includefootball,rugby union, basketball, androller hockey.
Rugby is a traditional sport in Andorra, mainly influenced by its popularity in southern France. TheAndorra national rugby union team, nicknamed Els Isards, plays on the international stage inrugby union andrugby sevens.[231]VPC Andorra XV is a rugby team based in Andorra la Vella, which actually plays in the French championship.
Basketball's popularity has increased in the country since the 1990s, when the Andorran teamBC Andorra played in the top league of Spain (Liga ACB).[232] After 18 years the club returned to the top league in 2014.[233]
Other sports practised in Andorra include cycling, volleyball, judo, Australian Rules football, handball, swimming, gymnastics, tennis, and motorsports. In 2012, Andorra raised its first national cricket team and played a home match against the Dutch Fellowship of Fairly Odd Places Cricket Club, the first match played in the history of Andorra at an altitude of 1,300 metres (4,300 ft).[234]
Skiing, hiking, cross-country running, and cycling are all popular sports tourism activities in Andorra.[235] Andorra's economy is heavily built on tourism.[235]
Andorra generally enjoys a ski season from late November to early April, depending on weather conditions.[236] Outside of the ski season, some of the ski lift facilities continue to operate at lower capacity, facilitating access to popular view points such as the Tristaina solar viewpoint, a viewpoint–sundial located on the peak of Peyreguils at an altitude of 2,701 metres and a few metres from the geographical border between Andorra and France. This peak is part of the Tristaina cirque, along with the Costa Rodona, Tristaina, Creussans, and Cabanyó peaks.[237]
^(In French) Girard P & Gomez P (2009), Lacs des Pyrénées: Andorre.[8]
^Before 1999, theFrench franc andSpanish peseta; the coins and notes of both currencies, however, remained legal tender until 2002. Small amounts ofAndorran diners (divided into 100 centim) were minted after 1982.
^Temperman, Jeroen (2010).State–Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law: Towards a Right to Religiously Neutral Governance. BRILL.ISBN978-90-04-18149-6.... guarantees the Roman Catholic Church free and public exercise of its activities and the preservation of the relations of special co-operation with the state in accordance with the Andorran tradition. The Constitution recognizes the full legal capacity of the bodies of the Roman Catholic Church which have legal status in accordance with their own rules.
^Marsenyach, Albert Daina."Boris I Rei d'Andorra".El Coprincipat d'Andorra ara fa molt de temps. Archived fromthe original on 16 January 2020. Retrieved22 January 2019.
^"S.E. Charles de Gaulle".Representació del S.E. Copríncep Francès al Principat d'Andorra. 23 October 1967.Archived from the original on 7 February 2023.
Armengol Aleix, E. (2009).Andorra: un profund i llarg viatge (in Catalan). Andorra: Government of Andorra.ISBN978-99920-0-549-1.
Guillamet Anton, J. (2009).Andorra: nova aproximació a la història d'Andorra (in Catalan). Andorra: Revista Altaïr.ISBN978-84-936220-4-6.
Llop Rovira, Marta (1998). "L'Edat Moderna a Andorra (S. XVII al XVIII)".Història, Geografia i Institucions d'Andorra. Government of Andorra.ISBN99920-0-185-2.
Ministeri d'Educació, Joventut i Esports (1996). "L'Edat Antiga i Mitjana a Andorra".Història, Geografia i Institucions d'Andorra. Government of Andorra.
Peruga Guerrero, J. (1998).La crisi de la societat tradicional (S. XIX) (in Catalan). Andorra: Segona Ensenyança.ISBN978-99920-0-186-8.
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