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During the growth of the ancientcivilizations,ancient technology was the result of advances inengineering inancient times. These advances in thehistory of technology stimulated societies to adopt new ways of living and governance.
This article includes the advances in technology and the development of several engineering sciences inhistoric times before theMiddle Ages, which began after thefall of the Western Roman Empire inAD 476,[1][2] the death ofJustinian I in the 6th century,[3] the coming ofIslam in the 7th century,[4] or the rise ofCharlemagne in the 8th century.[5] For technologies developed in medieval societies, seeMedieval technology andInventions in medieval Islam.
Technology in Africa has a history stretching to the beginning of the human species, stretching back to the first evidence oftool use by hominid ancestors in theareas of Africa where humans are believed to have evolved. Africa saw the advent of some of the earliestironworking technology in theAïr Mountains region of what is todayNiger and the erection of some of the world's oldest monuments, pyramids, and towers inEgypt,Nubia, andNorth Africa. In Nubia and ancient Kush, glazed quartzite and building in brick were developed to a greater extent than in Egypt. Parts of the East AfricanSwahili Coast saw the creation of the world's oldestcarbon steel creation with high-temperatureblast furnaces created by theHaya people of Tanzania.
The Mesopotamians were one of the first to enter theBronze Age in the world. Early on they usedcopper,bronze andgold, and later they usediron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used forarmor as well as for different weapons such asswords,daggers,spears, andmaces.
Perhaps the most important advance made by theMesopotamians was theinvention of writing by theSumerians. With the invention of writing came the first recorded laws called theCode of Hammurabi as well as the first major piece of literature called theEpic of Gilgamesh.
Several of the six classicsimple machines were invented in Mesopotamia.[6] Mesopotamians have been credited with the invention of thewheel. Thewheel and axle mechanism first appeared with thepotter's wheel, invented inMesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.[7] This led to the invention of thewheeled vehicle in Mesopotamia during the early 4th millennium BC. Depictions of wheeledwagons found onclay tabletpictographs at theEanna district ofUruk are dated between 3700 and 3500 BC.[8] Thelever was used in theshadoof water-lifting device, the firstcrane machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC,[9] and then inancient Egyptian technology circa 2000 BC.[10] The earliest evidence ofpulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC.[11]
Thescrew, the last of the simple machines to be invented,[12] first appeared in Mesopotamia during theNeo-Assyrian period (911–609) BC.[11] According to the assyriologistStephanie Dalley, the earliestpump was thescrew pump, first used bySennacherib, King ofAssyria, for thewater systems at theHanging Gardens of Babylon andNineveh in the 7th century BC. This attribution, however, is disputed by the historianJohn Peter Oleson.[13][14]
The Mesopotamians used asexagesimal number system with the base 60 (like we use base 10). They divided time up by 60s including a 60-second minute and a 60-minute hour, which we still use today. They also divided up the circle into 360 degrees. They had a wide knowledge of mathematics including addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, quadratic and cubic equations, and fractions. This was important in keeping track of records as well as in some of their large building projects. The Mesopotamians had formulas for figuring out the circumference and area for different geometric shapes like rectangles, circles, and triangles. Some evidence suggests that they even knew the Pythagorean Theorem long before Pythagoras wrote it down. They may have even discovered the number for pi in figuring the circumference of a circle.
Babylonian astronomy was able to follow the movements of the stars, planets, and the Moon. Application of advanced math predicted the movements of several planets. By studying the phases of the Moon, the Mesopotamians created the firstcalendar. It had 12 lunar months and was the predecessor for both theJewish andGreek calendars.
Babylonian medicine used logic and recorded medical history to be able to diagnose and treat illnesses with various creams and pills. Mesopotamians had two kinds of medical practices, magical and physical, and would often use both practices on the same patient.[15]
The Mesopotamians made many technological discoveries. They were the first to use the potter's wheel to make better pottery, they used irrigation to get water to their crops, they used bronze metal (and later iron metal) to make strong tools and weapons, and used looms to weave cloth from wool.
The Jerwan Aqueduct (c. 688 BC) is made with stone arches and lined with waterproof concrete.[16]
For later technologies developed in the Mesopotamian region, now known asIraq, seePersia below for developments under the ancientPersian Empire, and theInventions in medieval Islam andArab Agricultural Revolution articles for developments under the medieval IslamicCaliphates.
TheEgyptians invented and used many simple machines, such as theramp to aid construction processes. They were among the first to extractgold by large-scale mining usingfire-setting, and the first recognisablemap, theTurin papyrus shows the plan of one such mine inNubia.
TheEgyptians are known for buildingpyramids centuries before the creation of modern tools. Historians and archaeologists have found evidence that theEgyptian pyramids were built using three of what is called theSix Simple Machines, from which all machines are based. These machines are theinclined plane, thewedge, and thelever, which allowed the ancient Egyptians to move millions of limestone blocks which weighed approximately 3.5 tons (7,000 lbs.) each into place to create structures like theGreat Pyramid of Giza, which is 481 feet (147 meters) high.[17]
Egyptianpaper, made frompapyrus, andpottery were mass-produced and exported throughout the Mediterranean basin. Thewheel, however, did not arrive until foreign invaders introduced thechariot. They developed Mediterraneanmaritime technology including ships and lighthouses. Early construction techniques utilized by the Ancient Egyptians made use of bricks composed mainly of clay, sand, silt, and other minerals. These constructs would have been vital in flood control and irrigation, especially along the Nile delta.[18]
Thescrew pump is the oldest positive displacement pump.[19] The first records of a screw pump, also known as awater screw orArchimedes' screw, dates back toAncient Egypt before the 3rd century BC.[19][20] The Egyptian screw, used to lift water from theNile, was composed of tubes wound around a cylinder; as the entire unit rotates, water is lifted within the spiral tube to the higher elevation. A later screw pump design from Egypt had a spiral groove cut on the outside of a solid wooden cylinder and then the cylinder was covered by boards or sheets of metal closely covering the surfaces between the grooves.[19] The screw pump was later introduced from Egypt to Greece.[19]
For later technologies inPtolemaic Egypt andRoman Egypt, seeAncient Greek technology andRoman technology, respectively. For later technology in medievalArabic Egypt, seeInventions in medieval Islam andArab Agricultural Revolution.
Thehistory of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the earliest civilizations of the world. TheIndus Valley civilization yields evidence ofmathematics,hydrography,metrology,metallurgy,astronomy,medicine,surgery,civil engineering and sewage collection and disposal being practiced by its inhabitants.
TheIndus Valley civilization, situated in a resource-rich area (in modernPakistan and northwesternIndia), is notable for its early application of city planning,sanitation technologies, andplumbing.[21] Cities in the Indus Valley offer some of the first examples of closed gutters, public baths, and communal granaries.
TheTakshashila University was an important seat of learning in the ancient world. It was the center of education for scholars from all over Asia. ManyGreek, Persian andChinese students studied here under great scholars includingKautilya, Panini,Jivaka, and Vishnu Sharma.
The ancient system of medicine in India,Ayurveda was a significant milestone in Indian history. It mainly uses herbs as medicines. Its origins can be traced back to origin ofAtharvaveda. TheSushruta Samhita (400 BC) by Sushruta has details about performing cataract surgery, plastic surgery, etc.
Ancient India was also at the forefront of seafaring technology - a panel found atMohenjo-daro, depicts a sailing craft. Ship construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru, an ancient Indian text on Shipbuilding. (The Yukti Kalpa Taru had been translated and published byProf. Aufrecht in his 'Catalogue of SanskritManuscripts').
Indian construction and architecture, called 'Vaastu Shastra', suggests a thorough understanding of materials engineering, hydrology, and sanitation. Ancient Indian culture was also pioneering in its use of vegetable dyes, cultivating plants includingindigo andcinnabar. Many of the dyes were used in art and sculpture. The use ofperfumes demonstrates some knowledge ofchemistry, particularlydistillation and purification processes.
Thehistory of science and technology in China shows significant advances in science, technology, mathematics, and astronomy. The first recorded observations of comets, solar eclipses, and supernovae were made in China.[citation needed] Traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture and herbal medicine were also practiced. TheFour Great Inventions of China: thecompass,gunpowder, papermaking, and printing were among the most important technological advances, only known in Europe by the end of the Middle Ages.
According to the Scottish researcherJoseph Needham, the Chinese made many first-known discoveries and developments. Major technological contributions from China include earlyseismological detectors,matches,paper, the double-actionpiston pump,cast iron, the ironplough, the multi-tubeseed drill, thesuspension bridge,natural gas as fuel, themagnetic compass, theraised-relief map, thepropeller, thecrossbow, thesouth-pointing chariot, andgunpowder. Other Chinese discoveries and inventions from the Medieval period, according to Joseph Needham's research, include:block printing andmovable type, phosphorescent paint, and thespinning wheel.
The solid-fuelrocket was invented in China about 1150 AD, nearly 200 years after the invention ofblack powder (which acted as the rocket's fuel). At the same time that theAge of Exploration was occurring in the West, the Chinese emperors of theMing Dynasty also sent ships,some reaching Africa. But the enterprises were not further funded, halting further exploration and development. WhenFerdinand Magellan's ships reachedBrunei in 1521, they found a wealthy city that had been fortified by Chinese engineers, and protected by abreakwater.Antonio Pigafetta noted that much of the technology of Brunei was equal to Western technology of the time. Also, there were more cannons in Brunei than on Magellan's ships, and the Chinese merchants to the Brunei court had sold themspectacles andporcelain, which were rarities in Europe.
Theqanat, a water management system used for irrigation, originated inIran before theAchaemenid period of Persia. The oldest and largest known qanat is in the Iranian city ofGonabad; after 2,700 years, it still provides drinking and agricultural water to nearly 40,000 people.[22] It was designed to carry water from underground sources to desert areas for agricultural and population growth.[clarification needed] The places where water is gathered are surrounded by zones[clarification needed] to guarantee that its value is recognized and that they continue to function. To guarantee that the qanat system can run smoothly for a very long time, the farmlands that depend on this water are also conserved.[23]
TheYakhchāl is an ancient Persian refrigeration structure that was used to store ice and occasionally food in the hot summer months. The structure is composed of an extensive below-ground storage area with a large above-ground dome. It was kept cool throughout the summer by a system ofwindcatchers and qanats, and its structure was specially designed for optimal isolation.[clarification needed] This was made possible by its thickness and distinct composition[clarification needed] which made the walls impenetrable by water and heat resistant.[24]
These wind catchers also played a significant role in Persian ancient history. These ancient structures help control high speed winds[clarification needed] to naturally cool buildings,[25] which was needed to make the area habitable, as Yazd has a hot and dry climate.
According to Chris Soelberg and Julie Rich, researchers in a university in Utah, wind catchers have been seen as far back as 3,300 years ago in Egypt, but they actually originated in Iran.
The earliest evidence ofwater wheels andwatermills in theancient Near East dates back to the 4th century BC,[26] specifically in thePersian Empire before 350 BC, in the regions of Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Persia (Iran).[27] This pioneering use ofwater power constituted the first human-devised motive force not to rely on muscle power (besides thesail).
In the 7th century AD, Persians inAfghanistan developed the first practicalwindmills. For later medieval technologies developed inIslamic Persia, seeInventions in medieval Islam andArab Agricultural Revolution.
The ancient Persians also developed advanced mining techniques, particularly for military purposes. During sieges, they usedtunneling to undermine city walls, weakening fortifications and gaining access to cities. In one documented case, the Persians employedbitumen andsulfur in these operations to create toxic fumes. By igniting these materials, they generated poisonous gases that incapacitated defenders, marking one of the earliest examples of chemical warfare. Evidence for this tactic includes the discovery of the remains of around 20 Roman soldiers near a city wall, believed to have been exposed to the gases.[28]
TheBaghdad Battery is a 2,000-year-old artifact believed to have originated in ancient Persia. It consists of a clay jar containing a copper cylinder and an iron rod. When filled with an acidic liquid, the device could generate a small electrical charge. While its exact function remains debated, many scholars suggest it may have been used forelectroplating, a technique for coating objects with metals such as gold. This artifact suggests that the Persians had some understanding of electrochemical processes long before the modern discovery of electricity.[28]
Lacking suitable beasts of burden and inhabiting domains often too mountainous or boggy for wheeled transport, the ancient civilizations of the Americas did not develop wheeled transport or the mechanics associated with animal power. Nevertheless, they produced advanced engineering including above ground and underground aqueducts, quake-proof masonry, artificial lakes, dykes, 'fountains,' pressurized water,[29] road ways and complex terracing. Equally, gold-working commenced early in Peru (2000 BC),[30] and eventually copper, tin, lead and bronze were used.[31] Although metallurgy did not spread to Mesoamerica until the Middle Ages, it was employed here and in the Andes for sophisticated alloys and gilding. The Native Americans developed a complex understanding of the chemical properties or utility of natural substances, with the result that a majority of the world's early medicinal drugs and edible crops, many important adhesives, paints, fibres, plasters, and other useful items were the products of these civilizations.[citation needed] Perhaps the best-known Mesoamerican invention wasrubber, which was used to create rubber bands, rubber bindings, balls, syringes, 'raincoats,' boots, and waterproof insulation on containers and flasks.
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TheHellenistic period ofMediterranean history began in the 4th century BC withAlexander's conquests, which led to the emergence of aHellenistic civilization representing a synthesis ofGreek andNear-Eastern cultures in theEastern Mediterranean region, including theBalkans,Levant andEgypt.[32] WithPtolemaic Egypt as its intellectual center and Greek as the lingua franca, the Hellenistic civilization includedGreek,Egyptian,Jewish,Persian andPhoenician scholars and engineers who wrote in Greek.[33]
Hellenistic technology made significant progress from the 4th century BC, continuing up to and including the Roman period. Some inventions that are credited to the ancient Greeks are the following: bronze casting techniques,water organ (hydraulis), and thetorsion siege engine. Many of these inventions occurred late in the Hellenistic period, often inspired by the need to improve weapons and tactics in war.
Hellenistic engineers of the Eastern Mediterranean were responsible for a number of inventions and improvements to existing technology.Archimedes invented several machines. Hellenistic engineers often combined scientific research with the development of new technologies. Technologies invented by Hellenistic engineers include theballistae, thepiston pump, and primitiveanalog computers like theAntikythera mechanism. Hellenistic architects builtdomes, and were the first to explore theGolden ratio and its relationship with geometry and architecture.
Other Hellenistic innovations include torsion catapults, pneumatic catapults, crossbows, rutways, organs, the keyboard mechanism, differential gears, showers, dry docks, diving bells, odometer and astrolabes. In architecture, Hellenistic engineers constructed monumental lighthouses such as thePharos and devised central heating systems. TheTunnel of Eupalinos is the earliest tunnel which has been excavated with a scientific approach from both ends.
Automata like automatic doors and other ingenious devices were built by Hellenistic engineers asCtesibius andPhilo of Byzantium. Greek technological treatises were scrupulously studied and advanced by later Byzantine, Arabic and Latin scholars, and provided some of the foundations for further technological advances in these civilizations.
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TheRoman Empire expanded fromItaly across the entireMediterranean region during the 1st century BC and 1st century AD. Its most advanced and economically productive provinces outside of Italy were theEastern Roman provinces in theBalkans,Asia Minor,Egypt, and theLevant, with Egypt in particular being the wealthiest Roman province outside of Italy.[34][35]
Roman technology supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible over nearly a thousand years. The Roman Empire had an advanced set of technology for their time. Some of the Roman technology in Europe may have been lost during the turbulent eras of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Roman technological feats in many different areas such as civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and some inventions such as themechanical reaper went unmatched until the 19th century. Romans developed an intensive and sophisticated agriculture, expanded upon existing iron working technology, createdlaws providing for individual ownership, advanced stonemasonry technology, advancedroad-building (exceeded only in the 19th century), military engineering, civil engineering, spinning and weaving and several different machines like theGallic reaper that helped to increase productivity in many sectors of the Roman economy. They also developed water power through building aqueducts on a grand scale, using water not just for drinking supplies but also forirrigation, poweringwater mills and in mining. They used drainage wheels extensively in deep underground mines, one device being thereverse overshot water-wheel. They were the first to applyhydraulic mining methods for prospecting for metal ores, and for extracting those ores from the ground when found using a method known ashushing.
Roman engineers have builttriumphal arches,amphitheatres,aqueducts,public baths,true arch bridges,harbours,dams, vaults anddomes on a very large scale across their Empire. Notable Roman inventions include thebook (Codex),glass blowing andconcrete. Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, theconcrete which the Romans formulated was especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present day. Roman society had also carried over the design of a door lock with tumblers and springs from Greece. Like many other aspects of innovation and culture that were carried on from Greece to Rome, the lines between where each one originated from have become skewed over time. These mechanisms were highly sophisticated and intricate for the era.[36]
Roman civilization was highly urbanized by pre-modern standards. Many cities of theRoman Empire had over 100,000 inhabitants with the capital Rome being the largest metropolis of antiquity. Features of Roman urban life included multistory apartment buildings calledinsulae, street paving, public flush toilets, glass windows andfloor and wall heating. The Romans understoodhydraulics and constructedfountains and waterworks, particularlyaqueducts, which were the hallmark of their civilization. They exploited water power by buildingwater mills, sometimes in series, such as the sequence found atBarbegal in southern France and suspected on theJaniculum in Rome. SomeRoman baths have lasted to this day. The Romans developed many technologies which were apparently lost in theMiddle Ages, and were only fully reinvented in the 19th and 20th centuries. They also left texts describing their achievements, especiallyPliny the Elder,Frontinus andVitruvius.
Other less known Roman innovations includecement, boat mills, archdams and possiblytide mills.
In Roman Egypt,Heron of Alexandria invented theaeolipile, a basicsteam-powered device, and demonstrated knowledge of mechanic and pneumatic systems. He was also the first to experiment with awind-powered mechanical device, a windwheel. He also described avending machine. However, his inventions were primarily toys, rather than practical machines.
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