Ancient Jewish art, isart created by Jews in both theLand of Israel and in theDiaspora prior to theMiddle Ages. It features symbolic or figurative motifs often influenced by biblical themes, religious symbols, and the dominant cultures of the time, includingEgyptian,Hellenistic, andRoman art.
During theSecond Temple Period, Jewish decorative art followed thebiblical prohibition against images, avoiding figurative or symbolic depictions. Motifs from Eastern Mediterranean art were used, but without human or animal figures, reflecting Torah injunctions and a resistance to Roman influence.[1]
InLate Antiquity, the biblical commandment avoidance of figurative or symbolic painting was gradually ignored in part due to the influence ofChristianity. Symbols such as theMenorah served as both artistic as well as national symbols of Jewish identity, growing more acute after the destruction of theTemple in Jerusalem.
Prior to theFirst Temple Period and throughout its duration, literary sources point to the existence of craftsmanship which could be considered both art in its restrictive sense and nativelyJewish.[2][3] This was largely related to the decoration of theTabernacle and theTemple that replaced it.[2] Within this context a number of objects offigurative character were formed, such as thecherubs of theArk of the Covenant and of theSolomonicHoly of Holies, and theMolten Sea which sat on the backs of twelvebronzeoxen. Considering their ritual context, these were exceptions to the general prohibition against the creation of graven images.[2][4][5] On the other hand, artifacts bearing plastic depictions, such as the plaques unearthed inKing Ahab's "House of Ivory" inSamaria and Israelite seals found in many locations in the land of Israel, appear to be influenced byPhoenician,Assyrian orEgyptian styles and cannot be considered organic products of the Jewish culture.[6]
In theSecond Temple period, especially from theHasmonean period and onward,Jewish art, both in theLand of Israel and thediaspora, was characterized by a marked avoidance of figurative or symbolic motifs.[6] This was in accordance with the aforementioned Biblical prohibition, though the strict adherence to it was most probably a reaction to the efforts ofHellenistic andRoman rulers to imposeidolatry on the Jewish people, thereby threatening theirreligion and culture.[7][8][9][10] As a result the predominant artistic themes were geometric, floral, and architectural. On the other hand, Jewish Hellenistic factions of The Second Temple Period adopted Greek influences to some extent and integrated figurative depictions into their architecture and statuary, as can be seen in such sites as theTobiad estate inIraq al-Amir.[11]
A significant shift occurred in Jewish artistic expression duringLate Antiquity, whenJews began incorporating symbolic motifs in their synagogal and funerary art. This change was not only evident in the variety of contexts and localities but also in the diverse range of objects that featured these symbols. The repertoire of symbols, initially limited, expanded over time.[12][9][13]
This change in artistic expression was influenced by the rise ofChristianity and its establishment as the official religion of theRoman Empire. The new religious landscape presented a challenge to Judaism, necessitating a shift in cultural representation. The Jews began to use specific symbols in their art as a means of expressing and affirming their Jewish identity. These symbols included the menorah, the showbread table, the ark, ritual objects, and the conch. Originally part of the Temple rites, these symbols held significant meaning and became a prominent feature in Jewish art of the period. They served not only as religious symbols but also as emblems of national and communal identity.[14][15]
Themenorah's evolution is understood as a key example of this transition. Initially a sign of priestly roles during the Second Temple period, the menorah transformed into a widely recognized symbol of Jewish identity after the Temple's destruction.[16][13][17]
Themenorah, originally described in the Bible as being a solid gold candelabrum with a central shaft and six branches extending from it, is mentioned first in the context of theTabernacle,[18] and was later used in theTemple of Jerusalem as part of the daily ritual. Even as theSecond Temple stood, the image of the menorah was used in a decorative context.[19]
As a concrete figurative symbol, the menorah first appeared during the second half of the first century BCE. Depictions increased gradually over time,[20] gaining particular prominence in the ornamentation ofsynagogues, places of residence,catacombs and ritual objects during the third and fourth centuries CE, both inIsrael and in thediaspora.[21]
The first visual representations of the menorah appear on the coins of the lastHasmonean kingMattathias Antigonus (40–37 BCE). Additional depictions from theSecond Temple Period include those on several plaster fragments from theJewish Quarter of Jerusalem and asundial found near the Tempe Mount, five incised menorahs on the eastern wall ofJason’s tomb in Jerusalem, two painted menorahs on the wall of a cistern in arefuge cave ofNahal Mikhmas, twoossuaries fromJerusalem, one ossuary from the Goliath family tomb atJericho, and the famous depiction on thearch of Titus.[19][22] The “Darom” clay oil lamps fromJudea have depictions of the menorah as well, though they are dated to the period between thedestruction of the Temple (70 CE) and theBar Kokhba revolt (135 CE).[23]
Remains of several free-standing Menorahs have been unearthed in the excavations of several ancient synagogues inHammat Tiberias, Horvat Qoshet,Sussiya,Ma’on,Eshtemoa,Meroth,Ein Gedi and thediasporan synagogue of Sardis. Save the Menorah from Ein Gedi which was made of bronze, the rest were largely made of stone, though it is possible that others originally made of metal were plundered, and those made of wood did not survive due to decay.[24]
The most famous of menorah representations from late antiquity appear on synagogue mosaics, such as have been found inHammat Tiberias,Bet Alpha,Sussiya,Na’aran,Huseifa,Bet Shean,Sepphoris,Ma’on,Hulda,Jericho,Gerasa andEin Gedi, though their numbers on both public and domestic architectural elements such aslintels,chancel screens, capitals,columns, and others, ranging from the 2nd century and onwards, are much greater. These have been unearthed in locations such asAshdod,Ashkelon,Capernaum,Ein Nashut,Eshtemoa,Fiq,Gaza,Hebron,Jericho,Jerusalem,Naveh,Qasrin,Sussiya,Tiberias, and many others.[25]
Not only in Israel, but in the diaspora as well, the menorah was a prominent symbol in synagogues and was often found in various artistic forms. Menorahs of different styles appear on the wall paintings at the Dura Europos synagogue, while mosaics with menorahs were discovered in diaspora locations such asApaemea,Bova Marina,Hamam-Lif, andPhilippopolis. Reliefs, engravings and incisions featuring menorahs were found atOstia,Priene, Sardis and Stobi, and images of menorahs were also found on architectural and stone fragmenets atAcmonia,Aphordisias,Athens,Bithynion-Caludiopolis,Corinth,Nicaea,Pergamon,Porto (Italy) andTarragona.[26][27] The practical use of the menorah in the diaspora synagogal context is implied by the inscriptions from the synagogues ofSide inPamphylia andSardis, in which donation of menorahs to these synagogues is mentioned.[28]
Various theories for the meaning of the menorah depictions have been proposed, some of which suggest that it was a symbol of theheavenly spheres with God as the source of their light. Others present it as a sign of yearning forthe Temple and of the hopes for its renewal, or a counter-substitute for theChristian cross. According to Hachlili, the most probable of existing theories is one which proposes that the seven branches signified the seven days of the week, while the Menorah itself served as a daily ritual calendar with an additional candle being lit every day.[29][30]Levine suggests that it is possible that the menorah's very ability to take on varied interpretations contributed to its popularity.[29]
See main article:Showbread
Like theMenorah, theShowbread table was also a central vessel in the biblical tabernacle and the Temple of Jerusalem, though after the destruction its depiction was much less prominent.[31]
TheMassoretic version of the biblical text describes a table made ofacacia wood and coated with gold, while theSeptuagint has τράπεζαν χρυσίου καθαροῦ, a table made of pure gold.[32] The shape of the Showbread table as implied by the biblical description was of rectangular form, though Josephus describes it as similar to the Mensae Delphicae,[33] a three-legged round table which was popular during theSecond Temple Period.[34] Visual depictions from the Second Temple Period, such as the aforementioned coins ofMattathias Antigonus, the plaster fragments from the Jewish Quarter and the Arch of Titus, align with the biblical rectangular description, while the few depictions on the mosaics of late antique synagogues largely correspond to that of Josephus. These have been found in the synagogues ofDura Europos,Sepphoris and the Samaritan synagogue of El-Hirbeh, though the simple portrayal on the lintel of the synagogue inQasrin is of the rectangular style.[35] According to Hachlili the recurring style of the round table in the synagogues of Dura Europus, Sepphoris and El-Hirbeh points to a common source, possibly a Jewish pattern book.[36]
Alongside the Menorah, in many Jewish artistic compositions of late antiquity there appear several articles of ritual significance. In Israel the most common of these are theLulav,Ethrog,Shofar and an incense shovel, while in the diaspora the incense shovel was replaced by anamphora, vase or flask and a depiction of aTorah scroll was added.[37]
The meaning of these representations is debated. One approach maintains that they symbolize memory and yearning for the Temple of Jerusalem, in which these articles had ritual significance, another suggests that they consist of objects which were used in the synagogue setting. A third interpretation posits that they represent the threeHigh Holidays which occur during the Jewish month ofTishrei, relating the Shofar toRosh Hashana, the incense shovel toYom Kippur, and the Lulav and Etrog toSukkoth. If the vase or flask represents the waterlibation, it too can be attributed to the festival of Sukkoth, during which a water libation was poured on the altar.[38] The final approach sees these symbols as a combination of representative objects of both the Temple and the synagogue, pointing to the continuity of worship from one to the other.[39]
In the Jewish artistic representations of late antiquity, only two representations of the Temple have been discovered. One depiction on the shrine of the Dura Europus synagogue in modern daySyria, and one probable illustration on a gold glass fromthe Jewish catacombs of Rome.[40]
The depiction from Dura Europus bears similarities to the Temple facade on theBar Kokhba coins, consisting of atetrastyle sanctuary with two pairs offluted columns and Egyptian style capitals, a portal flanked by two decorated pillars, surmounted by aconch, and a double door with an ornamented center and two knobs.[41]
The depiction on thegold glass is not as distinct. It consists of agabled shrine within a columned courtyard. Steps lead up to the entrance to the shrine, on top of which is a Menorah within atympanum, and on either side of which are two columns. Below the shrine is a second Menorah flanked by ritual objects.[42] Hachlili concludes that the representation on the gold glass, despite its Graeco-Roman style and its difference from the other representations, most probably depicts the Temple as well. Her conclusion is drawn from the composition of the images, placing the structure within a columned courtyard next to a Menorah, and from its relative similarity to the other representations of sanctuaries in the Dura Europus synagogue, among them the Temple representation mentioned above.[43] It has been suggested that the Temple imagery represents Jewish hope for the restoration of the Temple and the coming of the Messiah.[43]
Another structural depiction, common in Jewish art of late antiquity is theArk of the Scrolls, a chest which stood in the Torah shrine of the synagogue, and in which Torah scrolls and scriptures were stored.[44] Generally made of wood, only traces of the original arks have survived, though much is known about them through their common depictions in artistic renditions.[45] In the majority of these representations the ark stands on two to four legs, is surmounted by a gable or a round top, has a double door with geometric ornamentation[45] and is often flanked by two Menorahs.[46] All the representations of the ark of the scrolls inIsrael are depicted with their doors shut, except for the drawing inBet She’arim which shows open doors behind which are shelves bearing scrolls, a feature it shares with all such depictions in the diaspora.[45]
It is most probable that the Torah shrine with its gabled roof and columns, and containing the ark of the scrolls, was meant to resemble the facade of the Jerusalem Temple, though a direct association is difficult to prove.[47]
As for its meaning, artistic representations of the ark confirm that its role in the synagogue was not only practical, but symbolic as well, with it signifying the centrality ofscripture and its study within the context of Temple worship, and its spiritual association with the community of the synagogue itself.[48]
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