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Ancient Estonia refers to a period coveringHistory of Estonia from the middle of the8th millennium BC until the conquest and subjugation of the localFinnic tribes in the first quarter of the 13th century during theTeutonic and DanishNorthern Crusades.[1]
The region has been populated since the end of the last glacial era, about 10,000 BC. The earliest traces of human settlement in Estonia are connected withKunda culture. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is thePulli settlement, which was located on the banks of theriver Pärnu, near the town ofSindi, in southwestern Estonia. It has been dated to the beginning of the9th millennium BC. The Kunda Culture received its name from theLammasmäe settlement site in northern Estonia, which dates from earlier than 8500.[2] Bone and stone artifacts similar to those found at Kunda have been discovered elsewhere in Estonia, as well as inLatvia,Russia, northernLithuania and southernFinland. Among minerals,flint andquartz were used the most for making cutting tools.
![Tools made by Kunda culture, the Estonian History Museum]]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKundaCultureTools.jpg)
The beginning of theNeolithic period is marked by the ceramics of theNarva culture, which appears in Estonia at the beginning of the5th millennium BC. The oldest finds date from around 4900 BC. The first pottery was made of thick clay mixed with pebbles, shells or plants. The Narva type ceramics are found throughout almost the entire Estonian coastal region and on the islands. The stone and bone tools of the era have a notable similarity with the artifacts of the Kunda culture.
Artifacts identified as belonging to the "Comb Ceramic Culture" have been found at sites from Northern Finland and Russia to EasternPrussia. Burials associated with the culture often include figures of animals, birds, snakes and humans carved frombone andamber[3] beginning from the middle of the4th millennium BC.[4] Until the early 1980s, the scholarly consensus held that the appearance of Comb Ceramic culture artifacts was associated with the arrival ofBaltic Finns (ancestors of theEstonians,Finns, andLivonians) on the shores of theBaltic Sea. However, such a linking of archaeologically defined cultural entities with ethno-linguistic ones is no longer assumed to be a given. An alternative hypothesis is that the increase of settlement finds in the period may have been associated with an economic boom related to the warming of climate. Some researchers have even argued that aUralic language may have been spoken in Estonia and Finland since the end of the last glaciation.[5]
The beginning of the Late Neolithic Period about 2200 BC is characterized by the appearance of theCorded Ware culture, pottery with corded decoration and well-polished stone axes (s.c. boat-shape axes). Evidence of agriculture is provided by charred grain of wheat on the wall of a corded-ware vessel found in Iru settlement. Osteological analysis show an attempt was made to domesticate thewild boar.[6]
Specific burial customs were characterized by the dead being laid on their sides with their knees pressed against their breast, one hand under the head. Objects placed into the graves were made of bones of domesticated animals.[4]
The beginning of theBronze Age in Estonia is dated to approximately 1800 BC. The development of the borders between the Baltic Finns and theBalts was under way. The first fortified settlements,Asva and Ridala on the island ofSaaremaa and Iru in the Northern Estonia began to be built. The development of shipbuilding facilitated the spread of bronze. Changes took place in burial customs, a new type of burial ground spread from Germanic to Estonian areas, stonecist graves and cremation burials became increasingly common aside small number of boat-shaped stone graves.[7]
ThePre-Roman Iron Age began in Estonia about 500 BC and lasted until the middle of the 1st century BC. The oldest iron items were imported, although since the 1st century iron was smelted from local marsh and lake ore. Settlement sites were located mostly in places that offered natural protection. Fortresses were built, although used temporarily. The appearance of squareCeltic fields surrounded by enclosures in Estonia date from the Pre-Roman Iron Age. The majority of stones with man-made indents, which presumably were connected with magic designed to increase crop fertility, date from this period. A new type of grave, quadrangular burial mounds began to develop. Burial traditions show the clear beginning of social stratification.
TheRoman Iron Age in Estonia is roughly dated to between 50 and 450 AD, the era that was affected by the influence of theRoman Empire. In material culture this is reflected by few Roman coins, somejewellery and artefacts. The abundance of iron artifacts in Southern Estonia speaks of closer mainland ties with southern areas while the islands of western and northern Estonia communicated with their neighbors mainly by sea. By the end of the period three clearly defined tribal dialectical areas: Northern Estonia, Southern Estonia, and Western Estonia (including the islands) had emerged, the population of each having formed its own understanding of identity.[8]
The name of Estonia occurs first in a form ofAestii in the 1st century AD byTacitus. However, at this stage it probably indicatedBaltic tribes living in the area of Western Lithuania and the present-dayKaliningrad. In the Norse sagas (13th century) the term apparently was used to indicate the Estonians.[9]
According to one interpretation,Ptolemy in hisGeography III in the middle of the 2nd century AD mentions theOsilians among other dwellers on the Baltic shore.[10]
The extent of Estonian territory in early medieval times is not well attested. The name in the formEstonia was first mentioned byCassiodorus in his book V. Letters 1–2 dating from the 6th century.[11]
Saxo Grammaticus describes theCuronians and Estonians as participating in theBattle of Bråvalla on the side of theSwedes against theDanes, who were aided by theLivonians and theWends ofPomerania. It is notable that otherBaltic tribes — i.e., theLetts andLithuanians — are not mentioned by Saxo as participating in the fight.[12]Snorri Sturluson relates in hisYnglinga saga how the Swedish kingIngvar Harra (7th century), the son ofÖsten and a great warrior, who was forced to patrol the shores of his kingdom fighting Estonian pirates. The saga speaks of his invasion of Estonia where he fell in a battle against the men ofEstland who had come down with a great army. After the battle, King Ingvar was buried close to the seashore in Estonia and the Swedes returned home.[13]
According toHeimskringla sagas, in the year 967 theNorwegian Queen Astrid escaped with her son, in future king of NorwayOlaf Tryggvason from her homeland toNovgorod, where her brother Sigurd held an honoured position at the court ofPrince Vladimir. On their journey, "Eistland" (Oeselian?) Vikings[14] raided the ship, killing some of the crew and taking others into slavery. Six years later, when Sigurd Eirikson traveled to "Eistland" to collect taxes on behalf of "Valdemar" (Vladimir), he spottedOlaf in a market in an unmentioned city[14] and paid for his freedom.
A battle betweenOeselian andIcelandic Vikings offSaaremaa is described inNjál's saga as occurring in 972 AD.
About 1008,Olaf the Holy, later king ofNorway, landed onSaaremaa. The Oesilians, taken by surprise, had at first agreed to pay the demands made by Olaf, but then gathered an army during the negotiations and attacked the Norwegians. Olaf (who would have been only 13 years old) claimed to have won the battle. Olaf was the subject of several biographies, both hagiographies and sagas, in the Middle Ages, and many of the historical facts concerning his adventures are disputed.
TheChudes as mentioned inOld East Slavic chronicles are in early context usually considered asBaltic Finns in north-westernRus or even as all non-Slavic people in north-eastern Europe, but since 11th century mainly asEstonians.[15] According toPrimary Chronicle the Chudes where one of the founders of theRus' state in 9th century.[16] According toNestorYaroslav I the Wise invaded the country of the Chuds in 1030 and laid the foundations ofYuriev, (the historical Russian name ofTartu,Estonia).[15]
According to theNovgorod Chronicle,Varyag Ulf (Uleb) fromNovgorod was crushed in battle atIron Gate, which is usually located in northern Russia, but according to one hypothesis took place on sea close to theTallinn Bay in 1032.[17]
In the 1st centuries AD political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the parish (kihelkond) and the county (maakond). The parish consisted of several villages. Nearly all parishes had at least one fortress. The defense of the local area was directed by the highest official, the parish elder. The county was composed of several parishes, also headed by an elder. By the 13th century the following major counties had developed in Estonia:Saaremaa (Osilia),Läänemaa (Rotalia or Maritima),Harjumaa (Harria),Rävala (Revalia),Virumaa (Vironia),Järvamaa (Jervia),Sakala (Saccala), andUgandi (Ugaunia).[18]
Estonia constitutes one of the richest territories in the Baltic for hoards from the 11th and the 12th centuries. The earliest coin hoards found in Estonia are ArabicDirhams from the 8th century. The largestViking Age hoards found in Estonia have been atMaidla andKose. Out of the 1500 coins published in catalogues, 1000 areAnglo-Saxon.[20]
Varbola Stronghold (Latin:Castrum Warbole) was one of the largestcircular rampart fortress and trading center built inEstonia,Harju County (Latin:Harria) at the time.
In the 11th century the Scandinavians are frequently chronicled as combating theVikings from the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. With the rise ofChristianity, centralized authority in Scandinavia andGermany eventually lead toBaltic crusades.The east Baltic world was transformed by military conquest: First theLivs,Letts andEstonians, then thePrussians and theFinns underwent defeat,baptism,military occupation and sometimes extermination by groups ofGermans,Danes andSwedes.[21]