Ancient Egyptian technology describes devices and technologies invented or used inancient Egypt. TheEgyptians invented and used manysimple machines, such as theramp and thelever, to aid construction processes. They usedropetrusses to stiffen thebeam of ships. Egyptianpaper, made frompapyrus, andpottery were mass-produced and exported throughout theMediterranean Basin. Thewheel was used for a number of purposes, butchariots only came into use after theSecond Intermediate Period. The Egyptians also played an important role in developing Mediterraneanmaritime technology includingships andlighthouses.
Significant advances inancient Egypt during thedynastic period includeastronomy,mathematics, andmedicine. Theirgeometry was a necessary outgrowth ofsurveying to preserve the layout and ownership of fertile farmland, which was flooded annually by theNile River.[1] The 3,4,5right triangle and other rules of thumb served to represent rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt also was a center ofalchemy research for much of the western world.
The wordpaper comes from the Greek term for the ancient Egyptianwriting material calledpapyrus, which was formed from beaten strips ofpapyrus plants. Papyrus was produced in Egypt as early as 3000 BC and was sold toancient Greece andRome. Egyptians were the first to usereed pens andInk which they used to write on papyrus.[2][3] The first mention of writing onParchment also comes from theFourth Dynasty of Egypt.[4] The establishment of theLibrary of Alexandria limited the supply of papyrus for others. According to the Roman historianPliny the Elder (Natural History records, xiii.21), as a result of this,parchment was invented under the patronage ofEumenes II of Pergamon to build his rival library atPergamon. However, this is a myth; parchment had been in use in Anatolia and elsewhere long before the rise of Pergamon.
Egyptian hieroglyphs, aphoneticwriting system, served as the basis for thePhoenician alphabet from which later alphabets, such as Hebrew, Greek, and Latin were derived. With this ability, writing and record-keeping, the Egyptians developed one of the – if notthe – firstdecimal system.[5][6][7]Egyptian writing is also considered the oldest in the world along with Sumerian writing.[8][9][10]
The city ofAlexandria retained preeminence for its records and scrolls with its library. This ancient library was damaged by fire when it fell under Roman rule,[11] and was destroyed completely by 642 CE.[12][13] With it, a vast supply of antique literature, history, and knowledge was lost.
Some of the older materials used in the construction of Egyptian housing included reeds and clay. According to Lucas and Harris, "reeds were plastered with clay in order to keep out of heat and cold more effectually".[14]Windcatchers were also used in Egyptian houses for cooling and ventilation.[15] Tools that were used included "limestone, chiseled stones, wooden mallets, and stone hammers", but also some more sophisticated hand tools.[16] Wide range of lithic tools was used in Predynastic and Dynastic Egypt throughout the whole Egyptian Bronze Age.[17]
Ancient Egyptian metal tool kit is well described and it consisted of metal blades of chisels, adzes, axes, saws and drills, used for the work on various types of wood and stones.[18] Also, the ancient Egyptians were apparently usingcore drills in stonework at least as long ago as theFourth Dynasty, probably made of copper or arsenical copper and used in conjunction with a harder abrasive substance.
The earliest alloy used for the production of tools was arsenical bronze/copper, of which e.g. the tools used atOld Kingdom Giza were manufactured.[19] This alloy is harder than the "pure copper", presumed to be used by ancient Egyptians in earlier, now outdated works.[20] In theNew Kingdom, the predominant practical alloy wastin bronze.[21]
There has been some dispute among archaeologists over whether the abrasive was quartz sand or a harder mineral such ascorundum,emery ordiamond, and whether it was loose or embedded in the metal.[22][23][24]Lime mortar was used to plaster the Giza pyramids in addition to various limes incorporated into temples and homes.[25]
Many Egyptian temples are not standing today. Some are in ruin from wear and tear, while others have been lost entirely. The Egyptian structures are among the largest constructions ever conceived and built by humans. They constitute one of the most potent and enduring symbols of ancient Egyptian civilization. Temples and tombs built by a pharaoh famous for her projects,Hatshepsut, were massive and included many colossal statues of her. Pharaoh Tutankamun's rock-cuttomb in theValley of the Kings was full of jewelry and antiques. In some late myths,Ptah was identified as the primordial mound and had called creation into being, he was considered the deity of craftsmen, and in particular, of stone-based crafts.Imhotep, who was included in theEgyptian pantheon, was the first documented engineer.[26]
Adobe vaults were a type of structures spanning from the end of thefirst dynasty tomb ofQa'a, about 2900 BC, toCoptic times. The first such vaults were built underground, in the construction of tombs, but most of them were built overground, instead of roofs for lack of timber. Some adobe vaults were supported on columns and architraves, such as in the throne hall ofRamesses's III palace from 1200 BC atMadinet Habu. The barrel vaults of the store rooms of theRamesseum inLuxor haveparabolic cross sections, demonstrating an understanding ofstatics.[27]
InHellenistic Egypt,lighthouse technology was developed, the most famous example being theLighthouse of Alexandria. Alexandria was a port for the ships that traded the goods manufactured in Egypt or imported into Egypt. A giant cantilevered hoist lifted cargo to and from ships. The lighthouse itself was designed bySostratus of Cnidus and built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC) on the island of Pharos inAlexandria, Egypt, which has since become a peninsula. This lighthouse was renowned in its time and knowledge of it was never lost.
The Nile valley has been the site of one of the most influentialcivilizations in the world with its architectural monuments, which include theGiza pyramid complex and theGreat Sphinx.
The most famouspyramids are theEgyptian pyramids—huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among the largest constructions by humans. Pyramids functioned astombs forpharaohs. In ancient Egypt, a pyramid was referred to asmer, literally "place of ascendance." TheGreat Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. The base is over 13 acres (53,000 m2) in area. It is one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World and the only one of the seven to survive into modern times. The ancient Egyptians capped the peaks of their pyramids with gold platedpyramidions and covered their faces with polished white limestone, although many of the stones used for the finishing purpose have fallen or been removed for use on other structures over the millennia.
TheRed Pyramid (c.26th century BC), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed granite surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids.Menkaure's Pyramid, likely dating to the same era, was constructed oflimestone and granite blocks. TheGreat Pyramid of Giza (c.2580 BC) contains asarcophagus fashioned of redAswan granite. The mostly ruinedBlack Pyramid dating from the reign ofAmenemhat III once had a polished granite pyramidion or capstone, now on display in the main hall of theEgyptian Museum inCairo. Other uses in ancient Egypt[28] includecolumns, doorlintels,sills,jambs, and wall and floor veneer.
The ancient Egyptians had some of the first monumental stone buildings (such as inSaqqara), which are largely built of local limestones. How the Egyptians worked the solidgranite is still a matter of debate. Tool marks described by the Egyptologist Anna Serotta indicate the use of flint tools on finer work with harder stones, e.g. when producing the hieroglyphic inscriptions.[29] ArchaeologistPatrick Hunt[30] has postulated that the Egyptians usedemery shown to have higherhardness on theMohs scale. Regarding construction, of the various methods possibly used by builders, thelever moved and upliftedobelisks weighing more than 100tons.
Obelisks were a prominent part of theancient Egyptian architecture, placed in pairs at the entrances of various monuments and important buildings such as temples. Earliest known obelisk fragment is that of KingTeti (died c. 2333 BC) from the Old Kingdom, found at Heliopolis.[31] In 1902,Encyclopædia Britannica wrote: "The earliest temple obelisk still in position is that ofSenusret I of the XIIth Dynasty at Heliopolis (68 feet high)". The wordobelisk is of Greek rather than Egyptian origin becauseHerodotus, the great traveler, was the first writer to describe the objects. Twenty-nine ancient Egyptian obelisks are known to have survived, plus theUnfinished obelisk being built byHatshepsut to celebrate her sixteenth year as pharaoh. It broke while beingcarved out of the quarry and was abandoned when another one was begun to replace it. The broken one was found at Aswan and provides some of the only insight into the methods of how they were hewn.
The obelisk symbolized the sky deityRa and during the brief religious reformation ofAkhenaten was said to be a petrified ray of theAten, the sun disk. It is hypothesized byNew York UniversityEgyptologist Patricia Blackwell Gary andAstronomy senior editor Richard Talcott that the shapes of the ancient Egyptian pyramid and obelisk were derived from natural phenomena associated with the sun (the sun-god Ra being the Egyptians' greatest deity).[32] It was also thought that the deity existed within the structure. The Egyptians also usedpillars extensively.
Ramps have been reported as being widely used in Ancient Egypt. A ramp is an inclined plane, or a plane surface set at an angle (other than a right angle) against a horizontal surface. The inclined plane permits one to overcome a large resistance by applying a relatively small force through a longer distance than the load is to be raised. In civil engineering the slope (ratio of rise/run) is often referred to as a grade or gradient. An inclined plane is one of the commonly-recognized simple machines.
 | It has been suggested thatportions ofAncient_Egypt#Maritime_technology besplit out from it andmerged into this article. (Discuss)(February 2020) |
The ancient Egyptians had experience with building a variety of ships. The first Egyptian watercrafts were rafts and boats ofpapyrus. But already from thepredynasticGerzeh culture there are depictions on pottery that rather suggest reed boats[33] as well as clay models that suggesthulls made ofplanks.[34] Papyrus boats were used from the very beginning until about 1000 CE, when papyrus began to run short. That means there was a co-existence of reed-made and of wooden watercrafts lasting more than 4000 years. Papyrus boats were mainly small and were most used in calm shallow waters. The first import ofcedar wood from theLebanon for shipbuilding was reported in theDynasty IV (2600 BC).[35][36] Egyptians were the first to build proper shipHulls by assembling wooden planks.[37] as well as the firstHarbor built inWadi al-Jarf along the red sea coast.[38][39][40]
The ancient Egyptians had knowledge to some extent ofsail construction. This is governed by thescience ofaerodynamics.[41] The earliest Egyptian sails were simply placed to catch the wind and push a vessel.[42] Later Egyptian sails dating to 2400 BC were built with the recognition that ships could sailagainst the wind using thelift of the sails.[42][43] QueenHatshepsut oversaw the preparations and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, andwith several sails.[dubious –discuss][citation needed]Various others exist, also.
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A few pharaonic ships have survived to this day, such asKhufu ship.[44] Relics of someships from the First Dynasty were found nearAbydos,[45][46][47] and remnants of other ships were found near the pyramids.[46][48][49]
Although quarter rudders were the norm in Nile navigation, the Egyptians were the first to use also stern-mounted rudders (not of the modern type but center mounted steering oars).
The first warships of ancient Egypt were constructed during the earlyMiddle Kingdom and perhaps at the end of theOld Kingdom, but the first mention and a detailed description of a large enough and heavily armed ship dates from 16th century BC.
And I ordered to build twelve warships with rams, dedicated toAmun orSobek, orMaat andSekhmet, whose image was crowned best bronze noses. Carport and equipped outside rook over the waters, for many paddlers, having covered rowers deck not only from the side, but and top. and they were on board eighteen oars in two rows on the top and sat on two rowers, and the lower – one, a hundred and eight rowers were. And twelve rowers aft worked on three steering oars. And blocked Our Majesty ship inside three partitions (bulkheads) so as not to drown it by ramming the wicked, and the sailors had time to repair the hole. And Our Majesty arranged four towers for archers – two behind, and two on the nose and one above the other small – on the mast with narrow loopholes. they are covered withbronze in the fifth finger (3.2mm), as well as a canopy roof and its rowers. and they have (carried) on the nose three assault heavy crossbow arrows so they lit resin or oil with a salt of Seth (probably nitrate) tore a special blend and punched (?) lead ball with a lot of holes (?), and one of the same at the stern. and long ship seventy five cubits (41m), and the breadth sixteen, and in battle can go three-quarters of iteru per hour (about 6.5 knots)...
— The text of the tomb ofAmenhotep I (KV39).
WhenThutmose III achieved warshipsdisplacement up to 360 tons and carried up to ten new heavy and light to seventeen catapults based bronze springs, called "siege crossbow" – more precisely, siege bows. There also appeared giant catamarans, heavy warships, by the time ofRamesses III used until thePtolemaic dynasty.[50]
According to the Greek historianHerodotus,Necho II sent out an expedition ofPhoenicians, which reputedly, at some point between 610 and before 594 BC, sailed in three years from theRed Sea around Africa to the mouth of theNile. Some Egyptologists dispute that an Egyptian pharaoh would authorize such an expedition,[51] except for the reason oftrade in the ancient maritime routes.
The belief in Herodotus' account, handed down to him byoral tradition,[52] is primarily because he stated with disbelief that the Phoenicians "as they sailed on a westerly course round the southern end of Libya (Africa), they had the sun on their right – to northward of them" (The Histories 4.42) – inHerodotus' time it was not generally known that Africa was surrounded by an ocean (with the southern part of Africa being thought connected to Asia[53]). So fantastic an assertion is this of a typical example of some seafarers' story and Herodotus therefore may never have mentioned it at all, had it not been based on facts and made with the according insistence.[54]
This early description of Necho's expedition as a whole is contentious, though; it is recommended that one keep an open mind on the subject,[55] butStrabo,Polybius, andPtolemy doubted the description. EgyptologistA. B. Lloyd suggests that the Greeks at this time understood that anyone going south far enough and then turning west would have the Sun on their right but found it unbelievable that Africa reached so far south. He suggests that "It is extremely unlikely that an Egyptian king would, or could, have acted as Necho is depicted as doing" and that the story might have been triggered by the failure ofSataspes' attempt to circumnavigate Africa underXerxes the Great.[56] Regardless, it was believed by Herodotus andPliny.[57]
Irrigation as the artificial application of water to the soil was used to some extent in ancient Egypt, ahydraulic civilization (which entailshydraulic engineering).[58] In crop production it is mainly used to replace missing rainfall in periods of drought, as opposed to reliance on direct rainfall (referred to as dryland farming or as rainfed farming). Before technology advanced, the people of Egypt relied on the natural flow of the Nile River to tend to the crops. Although the Nile provided sufficient watering for the survival of domesticated animals, crops, and the people of Egypt, there were times where the Nile would flood the area wreaking havoc across the land.[59] There is evidence of the ancient EgyptianpharaohAmenemhet III in theTwelfth Dynasty (about 1800BC) using the natural lake of theFayûm as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons, as the lake swelled annually with theflooding of the Nile.[60] Construction of drainage canals reduced the problems of major flooding from entering homes and areas of crops; but because it was a hydraulic civilization, much of the water management was controlled in a systematic way.[61] Egyptians also developed theNilometer to measure the nile's water level and clarity of each year's flood and help forecast the flood's effect on the fields.[62][63]
The earliest knownglass beads fromEgypt were made during theNew Kingdom around 1500 BC and were produced in a variety of colors. They were made by winding molten glass around a metal bar and were highly prized as a trading commodity, especially blue beads, which were believed to have magical powers. TheEgyptians made small jars and bottles using the core-formed method. Glass threads were wound around a bag of sand tied to a rod. The glass was continually reheated to fuse the threads together. The glass-covered sand bag was kept in motion until the required shape and thickness was achieved. The rod was allowed to cool, then finally the bag was punctured and the sand poured out and reused. The Egyptians also created the first colored glass rods which they used to create colorful beads and decorations. They also worked with cast glass, which was produced by pouring molten glass into a mold, much likeiron and the more moderncrucible steel.[64] Recent evidence indicates that glassmaking started in Egypt and was later copied by Mesopotamians.[65]
The Egyptians were a practical people and this is reflected in their astronomy[66] in contrast to Babylonia where the first astronomical texts were written in astrological terms.[67] Even beforeUpper and Lower Egypt were unified in 3000 BC, observations of the night sky had influenced the development of areligion in which many of its principaldeities were heavenly bodies. InLower Egypt, priests built circularmudbrick walls with which to make a false horizon where they could mark the position of the sun as it rose at dawn, and then with a plumb-bob note the northern or southern turning points (solstices). This allowed them to discover that the sun disc, personified as Ra, took 365 days to travel from his birthplace at the winter solstice and back to it. Meanwhile, inUpper Egypt, a lunar calendar was being developed based on the behavior of the moon and the reappearance ofSirius in itsheliacal rising after its annual absence of about 70 days.[68]
After unification, problems with trying to work with two calendars (both depending upon constant observation) led to a merged, simplified civilcalendar with twelve 30-day months, three seasons of four months each, plus an extra five days, giving a 365-year day but with no way of accounting for the extra quarter day each year. Day and night were split into 24 units, each personified by a deity. A sundial found on Seti I's cenotaph with instructions for its use shows us that the daylight hours were at one time split into 10 units, with 12 hours for the night and an hour for the morning and evening twilights.[69] However, by Seti I's time day and night were normally divided into 12 hours each, the length of which would vary according to the time of year.
Key to much of this was the motion of the sun godRa and his annual movement along the horizon at sunrise. Out ofEgyptian myths such as those around Ra and the sky goddessNut came the development of the Egyptian calendar, time keeping, and even concepts of royalty. An astronomical ceiling in the burial chamber ofRamesses VI shows the sun being born from Nut in the morning, traveling along her body during the day and being swallowed at night.
During theFifth Dynasty six kings built sun temples in honour of Ra. The temple complexes built byNiuserre atAbu Gurab andUserkaf atAbusir have been excavated and have astronomical alignments, and the roofs of some of the buildings could have been used by observers to view the stars, calculate the hours at night and predict the sunrise for religious festivals.[citation needed]
Claims have been made thatprecession of the equinoxes was known in ancient Egypt prior to the time ofHipparchus.[70] This has been disputed however on the grounds that pre-Hipparchus texts do not mention precession and that "it is only by cunning interpretation of ancient myths and images, which are ostensibly about something else, that precession can be discerned in them, aided by some pretty esoteric numerological speculation involving the 72 years that mark one degree of shift in the zodiacal system and any number of permutations by multiplication, division, and addition."[71]
Note however that the Egyptian observation of a slowly changing stellar alignment over a multi-year period does not necessarily mean that they understood or even cared what was going on. For instance, from the Middle Kingdom onwards they used a table with entries for each month to tell the time of night from the passing of constellations. These went in error after a few centuries because of their calendar and precession, but were copied (with scribal errors) long after they lost their practical usefulness or the possibility of understanding and use of them in the current years, rather than the years in which they were originally used.
TheEdwin Smith Papyrus is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the earliest document which attempts to describe and analyze the brain: given this, it might be seen as the very beginnings ofneuroscience. The rational and practical nature of the papyrus is illustrated in 48 case histories, which are listed according to each organ. The papyrus begins by addressing injuries to the body along with treatments (includingRhinoplasty[72]), detailing injuries in descending anatomical order like a modern anatomical exposition, as well as diagnosing diseases likecancer.[73] The objective examination process[74] included visual and olfactory clues, palpation and taking of the pulse. Following the examination are the diagnosis and prognosis.Among the treatments are closing wounds withsutures,[75] bandaging,splints,poultices, Immobilization is advised for head and spinal cord injuries, as well as other lower body fractures. The papyrus also describes realisticanatomical,physiological andpathological observations.[74] It contains the first known descriptions of the cranial structures, themeninges, the external surface of the brain, thecerebrospinal fluid, and the intracranial pulsations. The procedures of this papyrus demonstrate an Egyptian level of knowledge of medicines that surpassed that ofHippocrates, who lived 1000 years later, and the documented rationale for diagnosis and treatment of spinal injuries can still be regarded as the state-of-the-art reasoning for modern clinical practice.[76] The influence of brain injuries on parts of the body is recognized, such asparalysis. The relationship between the location of a cranial injury and the side of the body affected is also recorded, while crushing injuries of vertebrae were noted to impair motor and sensory functions.[74] Due to its nature, it is believed the papyrus served as a textbook for the trauma from military battles. The papyrus contained the first known study ofAnatomy. It described theheart, its vessels,liver,spleen,kidneys,hypothalamus,uterus andbladder, and showed theblood vessels diverging from the heart.[77]
Ebers Papyrus contains The earliest known writings on theCirculatory system. it acknowledges the connection of the heart to the arteries. The Egyptians thought air came in through the mouth and into the lungs and heart. From the heart, the air travelled to every member through the arteries. Although this concept of the circulatory system is only partially correct, it represents one of the earliest accounts of scientific thought.[78]
The earliest known depiction ofcataract surgery is on a statue from theFifth Dynasty of Egypt (2467–2457 BCE). According to Francisco J Ascasoet al, a "relief painting from tomb number TT 217 in a worker settlement inDeir el-Medina" shows "the man buried in the tomb, Ipuy ... one of the builders of royal tombs in the renowned Valley of the Kings, circa 1279–1213 BC" as he underwent cataract surgery. Although direct evidence for cataract surgery in ancient Egypt is lacking, the indirect evidence, including surgical instruments that could have been used for the procedure, show that it was possible. It is assumed that the couching technique was used.
The Egyptians were also pioneers ofprosthetics, as shown by the wooden toe found on a body from theNew Kingdom circa 1000 BC.[79]
However, medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology was largely ineffective.[80] According to a paper published by Michael D. Parkins, 72% of 260 medical prescriptions in theHearst papyrus had no curative elements.[81] According to Michael D. Parkins, sewage pharmacology first began in ancient Egypt and was continued through the Middle Ages,[80] and while the use of animal dung can have curative properties,[82] it is not without its risk. Practices such as applying cow dung to wounds, ear piercing, tattooing, and chronic ear infections were important factors in developingtetanus.[83] Frank J. Snoek wrote that Egyptian medicine used fly specks, lizard blood, swine teeth, and other such remedies which he believes could have been harmful.[84]
Mummification of the dead was not always practiced in Egypt. Once thepractice began, an individual was placed at a final resting place through a set of rituals and protocol.
The earliest evidence for thepotter's wheels comes from Canaanite potters living in the Nile Delta, c. 3500 – c. 3300 BC. Egyptians made wheel thrown pottery as early as the4th Dynasty (c. 2613 – c. 2494 BC).[85]Lathes are known from at least 1300 BC,[86] butFlinders Petrie claimed that they had been used as early as the 4th Dynasty, based on tool marks found onstone bowls from that period.[87]
The wheel existed in Egypt since at least theFifth Dynasty.[88]
Chariots, however, are only believed to have been introduced by the invasion of theHyksos in theSecond Intermediate Period (c.1650 BC to c.1550 BC);[89] during theNew Kingdom era (c.1550 BC to c.1077 BC),chariotry became central to Egypt'smilitary.
The Egyptians developed a variety offurniture. There in the lands of ancient Egypt is the first evidence forstools,beds, andtables (such as from the tombs similar toTutankhamun's). Recovered ancient Egyptian furniture includes a third millennium BC bed discovered in the Tarkhan Tomb, a c. 2550 BC gilded set from the tomb of QueenHetepheres I, and a c. 1550 BC stool from Thebes.
Some have suggested that the Egyptians had some form of understandingelectricphenomena from observinglightning and interacting withelectric fish (such asMalapterurus electricus) or other animals (such aselectric eels).[90] The comment about lightning appears to come from a misunderstanding of a text referring to "high poles covered with copper plates" to argue this[91] but Dr. Bolko Stern has written in detail explaining why the copper covered tops of poles (which were lower than the associated pylons) do not relate to electricity or lightning, pointing out that no evidence of anything used to manipulate electricity had been found in Egypt and that this was a magical and not a technical installation.[92]
UnderHellenistic rule, Egypt was one of the most prosperous regions of theHellenistic civilization. The ancient Egyptian city ofRhakotis was renovated asAlexandria, which became the largest city around theMediterranean Basin. UnderRoman rule, Egypt was one of the most prosperous regions of theRoman Empire, with Alexandria being second only toancient Rome in size.
Recent scholarship suggests that thewater wheel originates fromPtolemaic Egypt, where it appeared by the 3rd century BC.[93][94] This is seen as an evolution of the paddle-driven water-lifting wheels that had been known in Egypt a century earlier.[93] According toJohn Peter Oleson, both the compartmented wheel and the hydraulicnoria may have been invented in Egypt by the 4th century BC, with theSakia being invented there a century later. This is supported by archeological finds atFaiyum,Egypt, where the oldest archeological evidence of a water-wheel has been found, in the form of a Sakia dating back to the 3rd century BC. Apapyrus dating to the 2nd century BC also found in Faiyum mentions a water wheel used for irrigation, a 2nd-century BCfresco found atAlexandria depicts a compartmented Sakia, and the writings ofCallixenus of Rhodes mention the use of a Sakia inPtolemaic Egypt during the reign ofPtolemy IV in the late 3rd century BC.[94]
Ancient Greek technology was often inspired by the need to improve weapons and tactics in war.Ancient Roman technology is a set of artifacts and customs which supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible over nearly a thousand years.
UnderArab rule, Egypt once again became one of the most prosperous regions around the Mediterranean. The Egyptian city ofCairo was founded by theFatimid Caliphate and served as its capital city. At the time, Cairo was second only toBaghdad, capital of the rivalAbbasid Caliphate. After thefall of Baghdad, however, Cairo overtook it as the largest city in the Mediterranean region until theearly modern period.
Inventions in medieval Islam covers the inventions developed in themedieval Islamic world, a region that extended fromAl-Andalus andAfrica in the west to theIndian subcontinent andCentral Asia in the east. Thetimeline of Islamic science and engineering covers the general development of science and technology in the Islamic world.
The Nile occupied an important position in Egyptian culture; it influenced the development of mathematics, geography, and the calendar; Egyptian geometry advanced due to the practice of land measurement "because the overflow of the Nile caused the boundary of each person's land to disappear."
