Amsterdam was founded at the mouth of theAmstel River, which was dammed to control flooding.[20] Originally a small fishing village in the 12th century, Amsterdam became a major world port during theDutch Golden Age of the 17th century, when the Netherlands was an economic powerhouse. Amsterdam was the leading centre for finance and trade, as well as a hub of secular art production.[21] In the 19th and 20th centuries, the city expanded and new neighborhoods and suburbs were built. The city has a long tradition of openness, liberalism, and tolerance.[22]Cycling is key to the city's modern character, and there are numerousbiking paths and lanes spread throughout.[23][24]
TheAmsterdam Stock Exchange, founded in 1602, is considered the oldest "modern" securities marketstock exchange in the world. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the topfinancial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered an alpha-world city. The city is the cultural capital of the Netherlands.[25] Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters in the city.[26] Many of the world's largest companies are based here or have established their European headquarters in the city, such as technology companiesUber,Netflix, andTesla.[27] In 2022, Amsterdam was ranked the ninth-best city to live in by theEconomist Intelligence Unit[28] and 12th on quality of living for environment and infrastructure by Mercer.[29] The city was ranked 4th place globally as a top tech hub in 2019.[30] ThePort of Amsterdam is the fifth largest in Europe.[31] TheKLM hub and Amsterdam's main airport,Schiphol, is thebusiest airport in the Netherlands,third in Europe, and11th in the world.[32] The Dutch capital is one of the most multicultural cities in the world, with about 180 nationalities represented.[33] Immigration and ethnic segregation in Amsterdam is a current issue.[34]
Due to its geographical location in what used to be wetpeatland, the founding of Amsterdam is later than otherurban centres in the Low Countries. However, around the area of what later became Amsterdam, farmers settled as early as three millennia ago. They lived along the prehistoricIJ river and upstream of itstributary Amstel. The prehistoric IJ was a shallow and quiet stream in peatland behindbeach ridges. This secluded area was able to grow into an important local settlement centre, especially in the lateBronze Age, theIron Age and theRoman Age.Neolithic and Roman artefacts have also been found in the prehistoricAmstel bedding under Amsterdam'sDamrak andRokin, such as shards ofBell Beaker culturepottery (2200–2000 BC) and a granite grinding stone (2700–2750 BC),[35][36] but the location of these artefacts around the river banks of the Amstel probably points to the presence of a modest semi-permanent or seasonal settlement. Until water issues were controlled, a permanent settlement would not have been possible, since the river mouth and the banks of the Amstel in this period in time were too wet for permanent habitation.[37][38]
The origins of Amsterdam are linked to the development of a dam on theAmstel River calledAmestelle, meaning 'watery area', fromAa(m) 'river' +stelle 'site at a shoreline', 'river bank'.[39] In this area,land reclamation started as early as the late 10th century.[40] Amestelle was located along a side arm of the IJ. This sidearm took its name from the eponymous land: Amstel. Amestelle was inhabited by farmers, who lived more inland and more upstream, where the land was not as wet as at the banks of the downstream river mouth. These farmers were starting the reclamation around upstreamOuderkerk aan de Amstel, and later at the other side of the river atAmstelveen. TheVan Amstel family, known in documents by this name since 1019,[39] held the stewardship in this northwestern nook of the ecclesiastical district of thebishop of Utrecht. The family later served also under thecount of Holland.
A major turning point in the development of the Amstel River mouth was theAll Saint's Flood of 1170. In an extremely short time, the shallow river IJ turned into a wide estuary, which from then on offered the Amstel an open connection to theZuiderzee,IJssel, and waterways further afield. This made the water flow of the Amstel more active, so excess water could be drained better. With drier banks, the downstream Amstel mouth became attractive for permanent habitation. Moreover, the river had grown from an insignificant peat stream into a junction of international waterways.[41] A settlement was built here immediately after the landscape change of 1170. Right from the start of its foundation, it focused on traffic, production, and trade; not on farming, as opposed to how communities had lived further upstream for the past 200 years and northward for thousands of years.[42] The construction of a dam at the mouth of the Amstel, eponymously namedDam, is historically estimated to have occurred between 1264 and 1275. The settlement first appeared in a document from 1275, concerning aroad toll granted by thecount of Holland Floris V to the residentsapud Amestelledamme 'at the dam in the Amstel' or 'at the dam of Amstelland'.[43][14] This allowed the inhabitants of the village to travel freely through theCounty of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks and dams.[44] This was a move in a years-long struggle for power in the area between the count of Holland and the Amstel family who governed the area on behalf of the bishop of Utrecht.[45] By 1327, the name had developed intoAemsterdam.[46][47]
From the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with theHanseatic League. From the 15th century on the city established an independenttrade route with the Baltic Sea in grain and timber, cutting out the Hanseatic League as middlemen. The city became the staple market of Europe forbulk cargo. This was made possible due to innovations in theherring fishery, from which Amsterdam reaped great wealth.[13] Herring had demand in markets all around Europe. Inventions of on-boardgibbing and theharingbuis in 1415, made longer voyages feasible and hence enabled Dutch fishermen to follow the herringshoals far from the coasts, giving them a monopoly in the industry.
The herring industry relied on international trade cooperation and large initial investments in ships. This required many highly skilled and unskilled workers to cooperate, as well as the import of the necessary raw materials to turn an unfinished product into a marketable one. This required merchants to then sell it throughout the continent and bookkeepers and accountants to divide the profit. In short, the herring industry was setting up the foundations for what would later become the transcontinental trade system and theDutch Golden Age, with Amsterdam at its centre,[15] hence the saying "Amsterdam is built on Herringbones".[20]
The Low Countries were part of the Hapsburg inheritance and came under the Spanish monarchy in the early sixteenth century. The Dutch rebelled againstPhilip II of Spain, who led a defense of Catholicism during the Protestant Reformation. The main reasons for the uprising were the imposition of new taxes, the tenth penny, and thereligious persecution of Protestants by the newly introducedInquisition. The revolt escalated into theEighty Years' War, which ultimately led to Dutch independence.[51] Strongly pushed byDutch Revolt leaderWilliam the Silent, theDutch Republic became known for its relativereligious tolerance.Jews from theIberian Peninsula, ProtestantHuguenots from France, prosperous merchants, and printers fromFlanders, and economic and religious refugees from the Spanish-controlled parts of theLow Countries found safety in Amsterdam. The influx of Flemish printers and the city's intellectual tolerance made Amsterdam a centre for the Europeanfree press.[52]
During the 17th century, Amsterdam experienced what is considered itsGolden Age, during which it became the wealthiest city in the Western world.[54] Ships sailed from Amsterdam to theBaltic Sea, the Caribbean, North America, and Africa, as well as present-dayIndonesia, India,Sri Lanka, andBrazil, forming the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants had the largest share in both theDutch East India Company (VOC) and theDutch West India Company. These companies acquired overseas possessions that later becameDutch colonies.
Amsterdam was Europe's most important hub for the shipment of goods and was the leadingfinancial centre of the Western world.[55] In 1602, the Amsterdam office of the Dutch East India Company became the world's firststock exchange by trading in its own shares.[56] The Bank of Amsterdam started operations in 1609, acting as a full-service bank for Dutch merchant bankers and as a reserve bank.
View of Vijzelstraat looking towards theMuntplein, 1891
The end of the 19th century is sometimes called Amsterdam's second Golden Age.[59] New museums, a railway station, and theConcertgebouw were built; At the same time, theIndustrial Revolution reached the city. TheAmsterdam–Rhine Canal was dug to give Amsterdam a direct connection to theRhine, and theNorth Sea Canal was dug to give the port a shorter connection to theNorth Sea. Both projects dramatically improved commerce with the rest of Europe and the world. In 1906,Joseph Conrad gave a brief description of Amsterdam as seen from the seaside, inThe Mirror of the Sea.
Photochrom of Amsterdam'sDam Square at the beginning of the 20th century
Shortly before theFirst World War, the city started to expand again, and new suburbs were built. Even though the Netherlands remained neutral in this war, Amsterdam suffered a food shortage, and heating fuel became scarce. The shortages sparked riots in which several people were killed. These riots are known as theAardappeloproer (Potato Rebellion). People started looting stores and warehouses to get supplies, mainly food.[60]
On 1 January 1921, after a flood in 1916, the depleted municipalities of Durgerdam, Holysloot, Zunderdorp andSchellingwoude, all lying north of Amsterdam, were, at their own request, annexed to the city.[61][62] Between the wars, the city continued to expand, most notably to the west of theJordaan district in theFrederik Hendrikbuurt and surrounding neighbourhoods.
Nazi Germanyinvaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940 and took control of the country. Some Amsterdam citizens sheltered Jews, thereby exposing themselves and their families to a high risk of being imprisoned or sent to concentration camps. More than 100,000Dutch Jews were deported and murdered inNazi concentration camps, including 56,521 victims inAuschwitz and a further number of 34,082 accounted for inSobibor.Around 60,000 Jewish inhabitants, including Jewish prewar refugees from Austria and Germany, were living in Amsterdam at the time of the Nazi occupation. Only those provided with a safe haven, avoiding deportation and denunciation, or the very few who returned from the camps at the end of the war, managed to survive.
At first the German occupation authorities were very cautious, wanting to convince the city inhabitants of their sincerity. However, their outlook soon turned to cynicism and brutality. A cause in the change of their behaviour was an attack by a Dutch resistance fighter against a collaborator belonging to the paramilitary Dutch fascist organisation, the NSB. The injured man died and in responseHeinrich Himmler ordered reprisals.427 Amsterdam Jews were arrested on 22 February, 1941 and sent toMauthausen concentration camp. Only two people survived.
Incensed, a broad spectrum of passive resistance was organized by the Dutch Underground. Trade unions, among them socialist andCommunist Party activists, led the protest. Their outcry received support from white collar employees in the civil service and support from the local diocese of the Church. Approval was also given and encouraged by the Dutch government-in-exile underQueen Wilhelmina in London.
The German authorities were taken completely by surprise by the level of resistance known as theFebruary strike. 300,000 people participated in the protest against the arrests of Jews. However, the occupier soon responded crudely and brutally, smashing union and illegal party activity. With the edifice of resistance removed the SS and German police apparatus, supported by collaborators in the Dutch auxiliary police, arrested thousands of defenceless Jews in Amsterdam's Jewish Quarter. The two main waves of arrest, culminating in deportation, occurred on 26 May 1943 and on 20 June 1943.
The most famous deportee was the young Jewish girlAnne Frank, whose safe hiding place with her family was betrayed and discovered in August, 1944. After a spell at the 'holding camp' in Westerbork Anna and her family were sent toAuschwitz, where her mother was murdered. From there she and her sister Margot were moved ontoBergen-Belsen concentration camp where they died amidst appalling and inhumane conditions in early 1945.[63]
At the end of the Second World War, and as a consequence of the Nazi occupation, Amsterdam was in a state of crisis. Communication with the rest of the country broke down, and food and fuel became scarce. Many citizens traveled to the countryside to forage. Dogs, cats, rawsugar beets, andtulip bulbs—cooked to a pulp—were consumed to stay alive.[64] Many trees in Amsterdam were cut down for fuel, and wood was taken from the houses, apartments and other buildings of deported Jews - a sad affair that no one relished. The city was finally liberated by Canadian forces on 5 May 1945, shortly before the end of the war in Europe.
Many new suburbs, such asOsdorp,Slotervaart,Slotermeer andGeuzenveld, were built in the years after the Second World War.[65] These suburbs contained many public parks and wide-open spaces, and the new buildings provided improved housing conditions with larger and brighter rooms, gardens, and balconies. Because of the war and other events of the 20th century, almost the entire city centre had fallen into disrepair. As society was changing,[clarification needed] politicians and other influential figures made plans to redesign large parts of it. There was an increasing demand for office buildings, and also for new roads, as the automobile became available to most people.[66] Ametro started operating in 1977 between the new suburb ofBijlmermeer in the city'sZuidoost (southeast) exclave and the centre of Amsterdam. Further plans were to build a new highway above the metro to connectAmsterdam Centraal and the city centre with other parts of the city.
The required large-scale demolitions began in Amsterdam's former Jewish neighborhood. Smaller streets, such as the Jodenbreestraat and Weesperstraat, were widened and almost all houses and buildings were demolished. At the peak of the demolition, theNieuwmarktrellen (Nieuwmarkt riots) broke out;[67] the rioters expressed their fury about the demolition caused by the restructuring of the city.
As a result, the demolition was stopped and the highway into the city's centre was never fully built; only the metro was completed. Only a few streets remained widened. The new city hall was built on the almost completely demolished Waterlooplein. Meanwhile, large private organizations, such asStadsherstel Amsterdam, were founded to restore the entire city centre. Although the success of this struggle is visible today, efforts for further restoration are still ongoing.[66] The entire city centre has reattained its former splendour and, as a whole, is now aprotected area. Many of its buildings have become monuments, and in July 2010 theGrachtengordel (the three concentric canals: Herengracht, Keizersgracht, and Prinsengracht) was added to theUNESCO World Heritage List.[68]
In the 21st century, the Amsterdam city centre has attracted large numbers of tourists: between 2012 and 2015, the annual number of visitors rose from 10 to 17 million. Real estate prices have surged, and local shops are making way for tourist-oriented ones, making the centre unaffordable for the city's inhabitants.[72] These developments have evoked comparisons withVenice, a city thought to be overwhelmed by the tourist influx.[73]
Construction of a new metro line connecting the part of the city north of theIJ to its southern part was started in 2003. The project was controversial because its cost had exceeded its budget by a factor of three by 2008,[74] because of fears of damage to buildings in the centre, and because construction had to be halted and restarted multiple times.[75] The new metro line was completed in 2018.[76]
Since 2014, renewed focus has been given to urban regeneration and renewal, especially in areas directly bordering the city centre, such asFrederik Hendrikbuurt. This urban renewal and expansion of the traditional centre of the city—with the construction of artificial islands of the new easternIJburg neighbourhood—is part of the Structural Vision Amsterdam 2040 initiative.[77][78]
Satellite photo of Amsterdam, 2020Topographic map of AmsterdamLarge-scale map of the city centre of Amsterdam, including sightseeing markers, as of April 2017[update].
Amsterdam is located in the Western Netherlands, in the province ofNorth Holland, the capital of which is not Amsterdam, but ratherHaarlem. The riverAmstel ends in the city centre and connects to a large number of canals that eventually terminate in theIJ. Amsterdam's elevation is about −2 m (−6.6 ft)below sea level.[79] The surrounding land is flat as it is formed of largepolders. An artificial forest,Amsterdamse Bos, is in the southwest. Amsterdam is connected to theNorth Sea through the longNorth Sea Canal.
Amsterdam is intensely urbanised, as is theAmsterdam metropolitan area surrounding the city. Comprising 219.4 km2 (84.7 sq mi) of land, thecity proper has 4,457 inhabitants per km2 and 2,275 houses per km2.[80] Parks andnature reserves make up 12% of Amsterdam's land area.[81]
Amsterdam has more than 100 km (60 mi) ofcanals, most of which are navigable by boat. The city's three main canals are thePrinsengracht, theHerengracht, and theKeizersgracht.
In theMiddle Ages, Amsterdam was surrounded by a moat, called theSingel, which now forms the innermost ring in the city, and gives the city centre a horseshoe shape. The city is also served by aseaport. It has been compared withVenice, due to its division into about 90 islands, which are linked by more than 1,200 bridges.[82]
Amsterdam has anoceanic climate (Köppen:Cfb)[83] strongly influenced by its proximity to theNorth Sea to the west, with prevailing westerly winds.
Amsterdam, as well as most of the North Holland province, lies inUSDAHardiness zone 8b. Frosts mainly occur during spells of easterly or northeasterly winds from the inner European continent. Even then, because Amsterdam is surrounded on three sides by large bodies of water, as well as having a significantheat-island effect, nights rarely fall below −5 °C (23 °F), while it could easily be −12 °C (10 °F) inHilversum, 25 km (16 mi) southeast.
Summers are moderately warm with several hot and humid days with occasional rain every month. The average daily high in August is 22.1 °C (72 °F), and 30 °C (86 °F) or higher is only measured on average on 2.5 days, placing Amsterdam in AHS Heat Zone 2. The record extremes range from −19.7 °C (−3.5 °F) to 36.3 °C (97.3 °F).[84][85][unreliable source?] Days with more than 1 mm (0.04 in) ofprecipitation are common, on average 133 days per year.
Amsterdam's average annual precipitation is 838 mm (33 in).[86] A large part of this precipitation falls as light rain or brief showers. Cloudy and damp days are common during the cooler months of October through March.
Source: Bureau Monumentenzorg en Archeologie (1300)[90] Ramaer 1921, pp. 11–12, 181 (1400 and 1564) Van Dillen 1929, pp. xxv–xxvi (1514, 1546 and 1557)
In 1300, Amsterdam's population was around 1,000 people.[91] While many towns in Holland experienced population decline during the 15th and 16th centuries, Amsterdam's population grew,[92] mainly due to the rise of the profitableBaltic maritime trade especially in grain after the Burgundian victory in theDutch–Hanseatic War in 1441.[93] The population of Amsterdam was only modest compared to the towns and cities ofFlanders andBrabant, which comprised the most urbanized area of the Low Countries.[94]
Historical population in 10-year intervals, 1590–present
This changed when, during theDutch Revolt, many people from the Southern Netherlands fled to the North, especially afterAntwerp fell to Spanish forces in 1585. Jews from Spain, Portugal, and Eastern Europe similarly settled in Amsterdam, as did Germans and Scandinavians.[92] In thirty years, Amsterdam's population more than doubled between 1585 and 1610.[95] By 1600, its population was around 50,000.[91] During the 1660s, Amsterdam's population reached 200,000.[96] The city's growth levelled off and the population stabilized around 240,000 for most of the 18th century.[97]
In 1750, Amsterdam was thefourth largest city in Western Europe, behind London (676,000), Paris (560,000) and Naples (324,000).[98] This was all the more remarkable as Amsterdam was neither the capital city nor the seat of government of theDutch Republic, which itself was a much smaller state than Great Britain, France or theOttoman Empire. In contrast to those other metropolises, Amsterdam was also surrounded by large towns such asLeiden (about 67,000),Rotterdam (45,000),Haarlem (38,000), andUtrecht (30,000).[99]
The city's population declined in the early 19th century,[100] dipping under 200,000 in 1820.[101] By the second half of the 19th century, industrialization spurred renewed growth.[102] Amsterdam's population hit an all-time high of 872,000 in 1959,[103] before declining in the following decades due to government-sponsored suburbanisation to so-calledgroeikernen (growth centres) such asPurmerend andAlmere.[104][105][106] Between 1970 and 1980, Amsterdam experienced a sharp population decline, peaking at a net loss of 25,000 people in 1973.[106] By 1985 the city had only 675,570 residents.[107] This was soon followed byreurbanization andgentrification,[108][106] leading to renewed population growth in the 2010s. Also in the 2010s, much of Amsterdam's population growth was due to immigration to the city.[109]
In the 16th and 17th centuries, non-Dutch immigrants to Amsterdam were mostly ProtestantHuguenots andFlemings,Sephardic Jews, andWestphalians. Huguenots came after theEdict of Fontainebleau in 1685, while the Flemish Protestants came during theEighty Years' War against Catholic Spain. The Westphalians came to Amsterdam mostly for economic reasons; their influx continued through the 18th and 19th centuries.[citation needed] Before the Second World War, 10% of the city population wasJewish. Just twenty percent of them survived theHolocaust.[110]
Amsterdam experienced an influx of religions and cultures after the Second World War. With 180 different nationalities,[111] Amsterdam is home to one of the widest varieties of nationalities of any city in the world.[112] The proportion of the population of immigrant origin in the city proper is about 50%[113] and 88% of the population are Dutch citizens.[114]
The first mass immigration in the 20th century was by people from Indonesia, who came to Amsterdam after the independence of theDutch East Indies in the 1940s and 1950s. In the 1960sguest workers from Turkey, Morocco, Italy, and Spain immigrated to Amsterdam. After the independence of Suriname in 1975, a large wave of Surinamese settled in Amsterdam, mostly in theBijlmer area. Other immigrants, including refugeesasylum seekers andundocumented immigrants, came from Europe, the Americas, Asia, and Africa. In the 1970s and 1980s, many 'old' Amsterdammers moved to 'new' cities likeAlmere andPurmerend, prompted by the thirdLand-use planning bill of the Dutch Government. This bill promoted suburbanization and arranged for new developments in so-called "groeikernen", literallycores of growth. Young professionals and artists moved into neighborhoodsDe Pijp and theJordaan abandoned by these Amsterdammers. The non-Western immigrants settled mostly in thesocial housing projects in Amsterdam-West and the Bijlmer.
In 2006, people of non-Western origin made up approximately one-fifth of the population of Amsterdam, and more than 30% of the city's children.[115][116][117] A slight majority of the residents of Amsterdam have at least one parent who was born outside the country. However, a much larger majority has at least one parent who was born inside the country (intercultural marriages are common in the city). Only a third of inhabitants under 15 areautochthons (person with two parents ofDutch origin).[118][119] In 2023,autochthons were a minority in 40% of Amsterdam's neighborhoods.[119] Segregation along ethnic lines is visible, with people of non-Western origin, considered a separate group byStatistics Netherlands, concentrating in specific neighborhoods especially inNieuw-West,Zeeburg,Bijlmer and in certain areas ofAmsterdam-Noord.[120][121]
In 2000, Christians formed the largestreligious group in the city (28% of the population). The next largest religion was Islam (8%), most of whose followers wereSunni.[122][123] In 2015, Christians formed the largestreligious group in the city (28% of the population). The next largest religion was Islam (7.1%), most of whose followers wereSunni.[124] Amsterdam has been one of the municipalities in the Netherlands that provided immigrants with extensive and freeDutch-language courses, which have benefited many immigrants.[125]
In 1578, the largely Catholic city of Amsterdam joined the revolt against Spanish rule,[129] late in comparison to other major northern Dutch cities.[130] Catholic priests were driven out of the city.[129] Following the Dutch takeover, all churches were converted to Protestant worship.[131]Calvinism was declared the main religion.[130] It was forbidden to openly professRoman Catholicism and theCatholic hierarchy was prohibited until the mid-19th century. This led to the establishment ofclandestine churches, covert religious buildings hidden in pre-existing buildings. Catholics, some Jews, and dissenting Protestants worshipped in such buildings.[132] A large influx of foreigners of many religions came to 17th-century Amsterdam, in particularSefardic Jews from Spain and Portugal,[133][134]Huguenots from France,[135]Lutherans,Mennonites, as well as Protestants from across the Netherlands.[136] This led to the establishment of many non-Dutch-speaking churches.[citation needed] In 1603, the Jewish received permission to practice their religion in the city. In 1639, the first synagogue was consecrated.[137] The Jews came to call the town "Jerusalem of the West".[138]
As they became established in the city, otherChristian denominations used converted Catholic chapels to conduct their own services. The oldest English-language church congregation in the world outside the United Kingdom is found at theBegijnhof.[citation needed][139] Regular services there are still offered in English under the auspices of theChurch of Scotland.[140] Being Calvinists, the Huguenots soon integrated into theDutch Reformed Church, though often retaining their own congregations. Some, commonly referred to by the moniker 'Walloon', are recognizable today as they offer occasional services in French.[citation needed]
In the second half of the 17th century, Amsterdam experienced an influx ofAshkenazim, Jews fromCentral and Eastern Europe. Jews often fled thepogroms in those areas. The first Ashkenazis who arrived in Amsterdam wererefugees from theKhmelnytsky uprising occurring in Ukraine and theThirty Years' War, which devastated much of Central Europe. They not only founded their own synagogues but had a strong influence on the 'Amsterdam dialect' adding a largeYiddish local vocabulary.[141] Despite an absence of an official Jewishghetto, most Jews preferred to live in the eastern part, which used to be the centre of medieval Amsterdam. The main street of this Jewish neighbourhood was Jodenbreestraat. The neighbourhood comprised theWaterlooplein and theNieuwmarkt.[141][142] Buildings in this neighbourhood fell into disrepair after the Second World War[143] a large section of the neighbourhood was demolished during the construction of the metro system. This led to riots, and as a result, the original plans for large-scale reconstruction were abandoned by the government.[144][145] The neighbourhood was rebuilt with smaller-scale residence buildings based on its original layout.[146]
TheWesterkerk in the Centrum borough, one of Amsterdam's best-known churches
Catholic churches in Amsterdam have been constructed since the restoration of the episcopal hierarchy in 1853.[147] One of the principal architects behind the city's Catholic churches,Cuypers, was also responsible for the Amsterdam Centraal station and theRijksmuseum.[148][149]
In 1924, theCatholic Church hosted theInternational Eucharistic Congress in Amsterdam;[150] numerous Catholicprelates visited the city, where festivities were held in churches and stadiums.[151] Catholic processions on the public streets, however, were still forbidden under law at the time.[152] Only in the 20th century was Amsterdam's relation to Catholicism normalised,[153] but despite its far larger population size, the episcopal see of the city was placed in the provincial town ofHaarlem.[154]
Historically, Amsterdam has been predominantly Christian. In 1900 Christians formed the largestreligious group in the city (70% of the population),Dutch Reformed Church formed 45% of the city population, and the Catholic Church formed 25% of the city population.[155] In recent times, religious demographics in Amsterdam have been changed by immigration from former colonies.Hinduism has been introduced from the Hindu diaspora from Suriname[156] and several distinct branches of Islam have been brought from various parts of the world.[157] Islam is now the largest non-Christian religion in Amsterdam.[128] The large community of Ghanaian immigrants has established African churches,[158] often in parking garages in theBijlmer area.[159]
View of the city centre looking southwest from the Oosterdokskade
A 1538 painting byCornelis Anthonisz showing a bird's-eye view of Amsterdam. The famousGrachtengordel had not yet been established.
Amsterdam fans out south from theAmsterdam Centraal station andDamrak, the main street off the station. The oldest area of the town is known asDe Wallen (English: "The Quays"). It lies to the east of Damrak and contains the city's famous red-light district. To the south of De Wallen is the old Jewish quarter of Waterlooplein.
The medieval and colonial agecanals of Amsterdam, known asgrachten, embraces the heart of the city where homes have interesting gables. Beyond the Grachtengordel are the former working-class areas ofJordaan and de Pijp. TheMuseumplein with the city's major museums, theVondelpark, a 19th-century park named after the Dutch writerJoost van den Vondel, as well as thePlantage neighbourhood, with thezoo, are also located outside the Grachtengordel.
The Amsterdam canal system is the result of consciouscity planning.[160] In the early 17th century, when immigration was at a peak, a comprehensive plan was developed that was based on four concentric half-circles of canals with their ends emerging at theIJ bay. Known as theGrachtengordel, three of the canals were mostly for residential development: theHerengracht (where "Heren" refers toHeren Regeerders van de stad Amsterdam, ruling lords of Amsterdam, whilegracht means canal, so that the name can be roughly translated as "Canal of the Lords"),Keizersgracht (Emperor's Canal) andPrinsengracht (Prince's Canal).[161] The fourth and outermost canal is theSingelgracht, which is often not mentioned on maps because it is a collective name for all canals in the outer ring. The Singelgracht should not be confused with the oldest and innermost canal, theSingel.
HerengrachtPrinsengracht
The canals served for defense,water management and transport. The defenses took the form of a moat andearthen dikes, with gates at transit points, but otherwise no masonrysuperstructures.[162] The original plans have been lost, so historians, such as Ed Taverne, need to speculate on the original intentions: it is thought that the considerations of the layout were purely practical and defensive rather than ornamental.[163]
Construction started in 1613 and proceeded from west to east, across the breadth of the layout, like a giganticwindshield wiper as the historianGeert Mak calls it – and not from the centre outwards, as a popular myth has it. The canal construction in the southern sector was completed by 1656. Subsequently, the construction of residential buildings proceeded slowly. The eastern part of the concentric canal plan, covering the area between the Amstel River and the IJ Bay, has never been implemented. In the following centuries, the land was used for parks, senior citizens' homes, theatres, other public facilities, and waterways without much planning.[164] Over the years, several canals have been filled in, becoming streets or squares, such as theNieuwezijds Voorburgwal and theSpui.[165]
After the development of Amsterdam's canals in the 17th century, the city did not grow beyond its borders for two centuries. During the 19th century,Samuel Sarphati devised a plan based on the grandeur of Paris and London at that time. The plan envisaged the construction of new houses, public buildings, and streets just outside theGrachtengordel. The main aim of the plan, however, was to improve public health. Although the plan did not expand the city, it did produce some of the largest public buildings to date, like thePaleis voor Volksvlijt.[166][167][168]
Following Sarphati, civil engineers Jacobus van Niftrik and Jan Kalff designed an entire ring of 19th-century neighbourhoods surrounding the city's centre, with the city preserving the ownership of all land outside the 17th-century limit, thus firmly controlling development.[169] Most of these neighbourhoods became home to the working class.[170]
In response to overcrowding, two plans were designed at the beginning of the 20th century which were very different from anything Amsterdam had ever seen before:Plan Zuid (designed by the architectBerlage) andWest. These plans involved the development of new neighbourhoods consisting of housing blocks for all social classes.[171][172]
After the Second World War, large new neighbourhoods were built in the western, southeastern, and northern parts of the city. These new neighbourhoods were built to relieve the city's shortage of living space and give people affordable houses with modern conveniences. The neighbourhoods consisted mainly of large housing blocks located among green spaces, connected to wide roads, making the neighbourhoods easily accessible bymotor car. The western suburbs which were built in that period are collectively called the Westelijke Tuinsteden. The area to the southeast of the city built during the same period is known as theBijlmer.[173][174]
Amsterdam has a richarchitectural history. The oldest building in Amsterdam is theOude Kerk (English: Old Church), at the heart of the Wallen, consecrated in 1306.[175] The oldest wooden building isHet Houten Huys[176] at theBegijnhof. It was constructed around 1425 and is one of only two existing wooden buildings. It is also one of the few examples ofGothic architecture in Amsterdam. The oldest stone building in the Netherlands, The Moriaan is built in's-Hertogenbosch.
In the 16th century, wooden buildings were razed and replaced with brick ones. During this period, many buildings were constructed in thearchitectural style of theRenaissance. Buildings of this period are very recognisable with theirstepped gable façades, which is the common Dutch Renaissance style. Amsterdam quickly developed its ownRenaissance architecture. These buildings were built according to the principles of the architectHendrick de Keyser.[177] One of the most striking buildings designed by Hendrick de Keyser is theWesterkerk. In the 17th centurybaroque architecture became very popular, as it was elsewhere in Europe. This roughly coincided with Amsterdam'sGolden Age. The leading architects of this style in Amsterdam wereJacob van Campen,Philips Vingboons andDaniel Stalpaert.[178]
Philip Vingboons designed splendid merchants' houses throughout the city. A famous building inbaroque style in Amsterdam is theRoyal Palace onDam Square. Throughout the 18th century, Amsterdam was heavily influenced byFrench culture. This is reflected in the architecture of that period. Around 1815, architects broke with the baroque style and started building in different neo-styles.[179] Most Gothic style buildings date from that era and are therefore said to be built in aneo-gothic style. At the end of the 19th century, theJugendstil orArt Nouveau style became popular and many new buildings were constructed in this architectural style. Since Amsterdam expanded rapidly during this period, new buildings adjacent to the city centre were also built in this style. The houses in the vicinity of theMuseum Square in Amsterdam Oud-Zuid are an example of Jugendstil. The last style that was popular in Amsterdam before themodern era wasArt Deco. Amsterdam had its own version of the style, which was called theAmsterdamse School. Whole districts were built in this style, such as theRivierenbuurt.[180] A notable feature of the façades of buildings designed in Amsterdamse School is that they are highly decorated and ornate, with oddly shaped windows and doors.
The old city centre is the focal point of all the architectural styles before the end of the 19th century. Jugendstil and Georgian are mostly found outside the city centre in the neighbourhoods built in the early 20th century, although there are also some striking examples of these styles in the city centre. Most historic buildings in the city centre and nearby are houses, such as the famous merchants' houses lining the canals.
Amsterdam has many parks, open spaces, and squares throughout the city. TheVondelpark, the largest park in the city, is located in theOud-Zuid neighbourhood and is named after the 17th-century Amsterdam authorJoost van den Vondel. Yearly, the park has around 10 million visitors. In the park is an open-air theatre, a playground, and severalhoreca facilities. In theZuid borough, is the Beatrixpark, named afterQueen Beatrix. Between Amsterdam andAmstelveen is theAmsterdamse Bos ("Amsterdam Forest"), the largest recreational area in Amsterdam. Annually, almost 4.5 million people visit the park, which has a size of 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres) and is approximately three times the size ofCentral Park.[181] TheAmstelpark in theZuid borough houses the Rieker windmill, which dates to 1636. Other parks include theSarphatipark in theDe Pijp neighbourhood, theOosterpark in theOost borough and theWesterpark in theWesterpark neighbourhood. The city has three beaches: Nemo Beach, Citybeach "Het stenen hoofd" (Silodam), and Blijburg, all located in the Centrum borough.
Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands.[182]According to the 2007European Cities Monitor (ECM) – an annual location survey of Europe's leading companies carried out by global real estate consultantCushman & Wakefield – Amsterdam is one of the top European cities in which to locate aninternational business, ranking fifth in the survey.[183] with the survey determining London, Paris,Frankfurt andBarcelona as the four European cities surpassing Amsterdam in this regard.
The adjoining municipality ofAmstelveen is the location ofKPMG International's global headquarters. Other non-Dutch companies have chosen to settle in communities surrounding Amsterdam since they allowfreehold property ownership, whereas Amsterdam retainsground rent.
ThePort of Amsterdam is the fourth-largest port in Europe, the 38th largest port in the world, and the second-largest port in the Netherlands by metric tons of cargo. In 2014, the Port of Amsterdam had a cargo throughput of 97,4 million tons of cargo, which was mostlybulk cargo. Amsterdam has the biggest cruise port in the Netherlands with more than 150 cruise ships every year. In 2019, the new lock inIJmuiden opened; since then, the port has been able to grow to 125 million tonnes in capacity.
Amsterdam is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Europe, receiving more than 5.34 million international visitors annually; this is excluding the 16 million day-trippers visiting the city every year.[189] The number of visitors has been growing steadily over the past decade. This can be attributed to an increasing number of European visitors. Two-thirds of the hotels are located in the city's centre.[190] Hotels with four or five stars contribute 42% of the total beds available and 41% of the overnight stays in Amsterdam. The room occupation rate was 85% in 2017, up from 78% in 2006.[191][192] The majority of tourists (74%) originate from Europe. The largest group of non-European visitors come from the United States, accounting for 14% of the total.[192] Certain years have a theme in Amsterdam to attract extra tourists. For example, the year 2006 was designated "Rembrandt 400", to celebrate the 400th birthday ofRembrandt van Rijn. Some hotels offer special arrangements or activities during these years. The average number of guests per year staying at the four campsites around the city ranges from 12,000 to 65,000.[192]
In 2023, the city began running a campaign to dissuade British men between the ages of 18 and 35 from coming to the city as tourists. The ad shows young men being handcuffed by police and is part of a new campaign to clean up the city's reputation.[193] On 25 May 2023, in a bid to crackdown on wild tourist behaviour, the city banned weed smoking in public areas in and around the red light district.[194]
De Wallen, also known as Walletjes or Rosse Buurt, is a designated area forlegalised prostitution and is Amsterdam's largest and best-knownred-light district. This neighbourhood has become a famous attraction for tourists. It consists of a network of canals, streets, and alleys containing several hundred small, one-room apartments rented bysex workers who offer their services from behind a window or glass door, typically illuminated with red lights. In recent years, the city government has been closing and repurposing the famous red-light district windows to clean up the area and reduce the amount of party and sex tourism.
Shops in Amsterdam range from large high-end department stores such asDe Bijenkorf founded in 1870 to small specialty shops. Amsterdam's high-end shops are found in the streetsP.C. Hooftstraat[196] andCornelis Schuytstraat, which are located in the vicinity of theVondelpark. One of Amsterdam's busiest high streets is the narrow, medievalKalverstraat in the heart of the city. Other shopping areas include theNegen Straatjes and Haarlemmerdijk and Haarlemmerstraat.Negen Straatjes are nine narrow streets within theGrachtengordel, the concentric canal system of Amsterdam. The Negen Straatjes differ from other shopping districts with the presence of a large diversity of privately owned shops. The Haarlemmerstraat and Haarlemmerdijk were voted the best shopping street in the Netherlands in 2011. These streets have as theNegen Straatjes a large diversity of privately owned shops. However, as theNegen Straatjes is dominated by fashion stores, the Haarlemmerstraat and Haarlemmerdijk offer a wide variety of stores, just to name some specialties: candy and other food-related stores, lingerie, sneakers, wedding clothing, interior shops, books, Italian deli's, racing and mountain bikes, skatewear, etc.[original research?]
The city also features a large number of open-air markets such as theAlbert Cuyp Market, Westerstraat-markt, Ten Katemarkt, andDappermarkt. Some of these markets are held daily, like the Albert Cuypmarkt and the Dappermarkt. Others, like the Westerstraatmarkt, are held every week.[original research?]
During the later part of the 16th century, Amsterdam's Rederijkerskamer (Chamber of rhetoric) organised contests between different Chambers in the reading of poetry and drama.[199][200] In 1637,Schouwburg, the first theatre in Amsterdam was built, opening on 3 January 1638.[201] The first ballet performances in the Netherlands were given in Schouwburg in 1642 with theBallet of the Five Senses.[202][203] In the 18th century, French theatre became popular. While Amsterdam was under the influence of German music in the 19th century there were few national opera productions; the Hollandse Opera of Amsterdam was built in 1888 for the specific purpose of promoting Dutch opera.[204] In the 19th century, popular culture was centred on the Nes area in Amsterdam (mainlyvaudeville andmusic-hall).[citation needed] An improvedmetronome was invented in 1812 byDietrich Nikolaus Winkel.[205] TheRijksmuseum (1885) andStedelijk Museum (1895) were built and opened.[206][207] In 1888, theConcertgebouworkest orchestra was established.[208] With the 20th century came cinema, radio and television.[citation needed] Though most studios are located inHilversum andAalsmeer, Amsterdam's influence on programming is very strong. Many people who work in the television industry live in Amsterdam. Also, the headquarters of the DutchSBS Broadcasting Group is located in Amsterdam.[209]
The most important museums of Amsterdam are located on theMuseumplein (Museum Square), located at the southwestern side of the Rijksmuseum. It was created in the last quarter of the 19th century on the grounds of the formerWorld's fair. The northeastern part of the square is bordered by the large Rijksmuseum. In front of the Rijksmuseum on the square itself is a long, rectangular pond. This is transformed into an ice rink in winter.[210] The northwestern part of the square is bordered by the Van Gogh Museum, House of Bols Cocktail & Genever Experience and Coster Diamonds. The southwestern border of the Museum Square is the Van Baerlestraat, which is a major thoroughfare in this part of Amsterdam. The Concertgebouw is located across this street from the square. To the southeast of the square are several large houses, one of which contains the American consulate. Aparking garage can be found underneath the square, as well as a supermarket. The Museumplein is covered almost entirely with a lawn, except for the northeastern part of the square which is covered with gravel. The current appearance of the square was realised in 1999 when the square was remodelled. The square itself is the most prominent site in Amsterdam for festivals and outdoor concerts, especially in the summer. Plans were made in 2008 to remodel the square again because many inhabitants of Amsterdam are not happy with its current appearance.[211]
TheRijksmuseum possesses the largest and most important collection of classicalDutch art.[212]It opened in 1885. Its collection consists of nearly one million objects.[213] The artist most associated with Amsterdam isRembrandt, whose work, and the work of his pupils, is displayed in the Rijksmuseum. Rembrandt's masterpieceThe Night Watch is one of the top pieces of art in the museum. It also houses paintings from artists likeBartholomeus van der Helst,Johannes Vermeer,Frans Hals,Ferdinand Bol,Albert Cuyp,Jacob van Ruisdael andPaulus Potter. Aside from paintings, the collection consists of a large variety ofdecorative art. This ranges fromDelftware to giant doll-houses from the 17th century. The architect of thegothic revival building was P.J.H. Cuypers. The museum underwent a 10-year, 375 million euro renovation starting in 2003. The full collection was reopened to the public on 13 April 2013 and the Rijksmuseum has remained the most visited museum in Amsterdam with 2.2 million visitors in 2016 and 2.16 million in 2017.[214]
Van Gogh lived in Amsterdam for a short while and there is amuseum dedicated to his work. The museum is housed in one of the few modern buildings in this area of Amsterdam. The building was designed byGerrit Rietveld. This building is where the permanent collection is displayed. A new building was added to the museum in 1999. This building, known as the performance wing, was designed by Japanese architectKisho Kurokawa. Its purpose is to house temporary exhibitions of the museum.[215][216] Some of Van Gogh's most famous paintings, likeThe Potato Eaters andSunflowers, are in the collection.[217] The Van Gogh museum is the second most visited museum in Amsterdam, not far behind the Rijksmuseum in terms of the number of visits, being approximately 2.1 million in 2016,[218] for example.
Next to the Van Gogh Museum stands theStedelijk Museum. This is Amsterdam's most important museum of modern art. The museum is as old as the square it borders and was opened in 1895. The permanent collection consists of works of art from artists likePiet Mondrian,Karel Appel, andKazimir Malevich. After renovations lasting several years, the museum opened in September 2012 with a new composite extension that has been called 'The Bathtub' due to its resemblance to one.
Amsterdam's musical culture includes a large collection of songs that treat the city nostalgically and lovingly. The 1949 song "Aan de Amsterdamse grachten" ("On the canals of Amsterdam") was performed and recorded by many artists, includingJohn Kraaijkamp Sr.; the best-known version is probably that byWim Sonneveld (1962). In the 1950sJohnny Jordaan rose to fame with "Geef mij maar Amsterdam" ("I prefer Amsterdam"), which praises the city above all others (explicitly Paris); Jordaan sang especially about his own neighbourhood, theJordaan ("Bij ons in de Jordaan"). Colleagues and contemporaries of Johnny includeTante Leen andManke Nelis. Another notable Amsterdam song is "Amsterdam" byJacques Brel (1964).[219] A 2011 poll by Amsterdam newspaperHet Parool that Trio Bier's "Oude Wolf" was voted "Amsterdams lijflied".[220] Notable Amsterdam bands from the modern era include theOsdorp Posse andThe Ex.
AFAS Live (formerly known as the Heineken Music Hall) is a concert hall located near theJohan Cruyff Arena (known as the Amsterdam Arena until 2018). Its main purpose is to serve as a podium for pop concerts for big audiences. Many famous international artists have performed there. Two other notable venues,Paradiso and theMelkweg are located near theLeidseplein. Both focus on broad programming, ranging fromindie rock tohip hop, R&B, and other popular genres. Other subcultural music venues areOCCII,OT301, De Nieuwe Anita, Winston Kingdom, and Zaal 100.Jazz has a strong following in Amsterdam, with theBimhuis being the premier venue. In 2012,Ziggo Dome was opened, also near Amsterdam Arena, a state-of-the-art indoor music arena.
AFAS Live is also host to manyelectronic dance music festivals, alongside many other venues.Armin van Buuren andTiesto, some of the world's leadingTrance DJs hail from the Netherlands and frequently perform in Amsterdam. Each year in October, the city hosts theAmsterdam Dance Event (ADE) which is one of the leading electronic music conferences and one of the biggest club festivals for electronic music in the world, attracting over 350,000 visitors each year.[221] Another popular dance festival is 5daysoff, which takes place in the venuesParadiso andMelkweg. In the summertime, there are several big outdoor dance parties in or nearby Amsterdam, such as Awakenings,Dance Valley,Mystery Land, Loveland, A Day at the Park, Welcome to the Future, and Valtifest.
Amsterdam has a world-class symphony orchestra, theRoyal Concertgebouw Orchestra. Their home is theConcertgebouw, which is across the Van Baerlestraat from the Museum Square. It is considered by critics to be aconcert hall with some of the bestacoustics in the world. The building contains three halls, Grote Zaal, Kleine Zaal, and Spiegelzaal. Some nine hundred concerts and other events per year take place in the Concertgebouw, for a public of over 700,000, making it one of the most-visited concert halls in the world.[222] The opera house of Amsterdam is located adjacent to the city hall. Therefore, the two buildings combined are often called theStopera, (a word originally coined by protesters against its very construction:Stop the Opera[-house]). This huge modern complex, opened in 1986, lies in the former Jewish neighbourhood atWaterlooplein next to the riverAmstel. TheStopera is the home base ofDutch National Opera,Dutch National Ballet and theHolland Symfonia.Muziekgebouw aan 't IJ is a concert hall, which is located in theIJ near the central station. Its concerts perform mostlymodern classical music. Located adjacent to it, is theBimhuis, a concert hall for improvised andJazz music.
TheStadsschouwburg at theLeidseplein is the home base ofToneelgroep Amsterdam. The current building dates from 1894. Most plays are performed in the Grote Zaal (Great Hall). The normal program of events encompasses all sorts of theatrical forms. In 2009, the new hall of the Stadsschouwburg Amsterdam, Toneelgroep Amsterdam, and Melkweg opened, and the renovation of the front end of the theatre was ready.
The recently re-opened DeLaMar Theater houses more commercial plays and musicals. A new theatre has also moved into the Amsterdam scene in 2014, joining other established venues: Theater Amsterdam is located in the west part of Amsterdam, on the Danzigerkade. It is housed in a modern building with a panoramic view over the harbour. The theatre is the first-ever purpose-built venue to showcase a single play entitled ANNE, the play based on Anne Frank's life.
On the east side of town, there is a small theatre in a converted bathhouse, theBadhuistheater. The theatre often has English programming.
Amsterdam is famous for its vibrant and diverse nightlife. Amsterdam has manycafés (bars). They range from large and modern to small and cosy. The typicalBruine Kroeg (browncafé) breathes a more old-fashioned atmosphere with dimmed lights, candles, and somewhat older clientele. These brown cafés mostly offer a wide range of local and international artisanal beers. Mostcafés have terraces in summertime. A common sight on the Leidseplein during summer is a square full of terraces packed with people drinking beer or wine. Many restaurants can be found in Amsterdam as well. Since Amsterdam is a multicultural city, a lot of different ethnic restaurants can be found. Restaurants range from being rather luxurious and expensive to being ordinary and affordable. Amsterdam also possesses manydiscothèques. The two main nightlife areas for tourists are theLeidseplein and theRembrandtplein. TheParadiso,Melkweg and Sugar Factory are cultural centres, which turn into discothèques on some nights.
In 2008, there were 140 festivals and events in Amsterdam.[223] During the same year, Amsterdam was designated as theWorld Book Capital for one year byUNESCO.[224]
Famous festivals and events in Amsterdam include:Koningsdag (which was namedKoninginnedag until the crowning of King Willem-Alexander in 2013) (King's Day – Queen's Day); theHolland Festival for the performing arts; the yearlyPrinsengrachtconcert (classical concerto on the Prinsen canal) in August; the 'Stille Omgang' (a silent Roman Catholic evening procession held every March);Amsterdam Gay Pride; TheCannabis Cup; and theUitmarkt. On Koningsdag—which is held each year on 27 April—hundreds of thousands of people travel to Amsterdam to celebrate with the city's residents. The entire city becomes overcrowded with people buying products from thefree market, or visiting one of the many music concerts.
One of the decorated boats participating in the 2013 Canal Parade of theAmsterdam Gay Pride
The yearly Holland Festival attracts international artists and visitors from all over Europe.Amsterdam Gay Pride is a yearly local LGBT parade of boats in Amsterdam's canals, held on the first Saturday in August.[225] The annual Uitmarkt is a three-day cultural event at the start of the cultural season in late August. It offers previews of many different artists, such as musicians and poets, who perform onpodia.[226]
The city holds theDam to Dam Run, a 16 km (10 mi) race from Amsterdam toZaandam, as well as theAmsterdam Marathon. The ice hockey teamAmstel Tijgers plays in theJaap Eden ice rink. The team competes in the Dutch Ice Hockey Premier League.Speed skating championships have been held on the 400-meter lane of this ice rink.
There is one rugby club in Amsterdam, which also hosts sports training classes such as RTC (Rugby Talenten Centrum or Rugby Talent Centre) and the National Rugby Stadium.
Since 1999, the city of Amsterdam honours the best sportsmen and women at theAmsterdam Sports Awards. BoxerRaymond Joval and field hockey midfielderCarole Thate were the first to receive the awards, in 1999.
On 18 September 2017, it was announced byEberhard van der Laan in an open letter to Amsterdam citizens thatKajsa Ollongren would take up his office as acting Mayor of Amsterdam with immediate effect due to ill health.[235] Ollongren was succeeded as acting Mayor by Eric van der Burg on 26 October 2017 and byJozias van Aartsen on 4 December 2017.
Unlike most other Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is subdivided into sevenboroughs, calledstadsdelen or 'districts', and the urban area ofWeesp.[1] This system was gradually implemented in the 1980s to improve local governance. The boroughs are responsible for many activities that had previously been run by the central city. In 2010, the number ofAmsterdam boroughs reached fifteen. Fourteen of those had their own district council (deelraad), elected by a popular vote. The fifteenth,Westpoort, covers the harbour of Amsterdam and has very few residents. Therefore, it was governed by the central municipal council.
Under the borough system, municipal decisions are made at the borough level, except for those affairs on the whole city such as major infrastructure projects, which are the jurisdiction of the central municipal authorities. In 2010, theborough system was restructured, in which many smaller boroughs merged into larger boroughs. In 2014, under a reform of the Dutch Municipalities Act, theAmsterdam boroughs lost much of their autonomous status, as their district councils were abolished.
The municipal council of Amsterdam voted to maintain the borough system by replacing the district councils with smaller, but still directly elected district committees (bestuurscommissies). Under a municipal ordinance, the new district committees were granted responsibilities through the delegation of regulatory and executive powers by the central municipal council.
View of theStopera (left), behind theBlauwbrug (blue bridge), where the Amsterdam city hall and opera house are located, and theH'ART Museum (right) on theAmstel
"Amsterdam" is usually understood to refer to themunicipality of Amsterdam. Colloquially, some areas within the municipality, such as the town ofDurgerdam, may not be considered part of Amsterdam.
Statistics Netherlands uses three other definitions of Amsterdam: metropolitan agglomeration Amsterdam (Grootstedelijke Agglomeratie Amsterdam, not to be confused withGrootstedelijk Gebied Amsterdam, a synonym ofGroot Amsterdam), Greater Amsterdam (Groot Amsterdam, aCOROP region) and the urban region Amsterdam (Stadsgewest Amsterdam).[124] The Amsterdam Department for Research and Statistics uses a fourth conurbation, namely theStadsregio Amsterdam ('City Region of Amsterdam'). The city region is similar to Greater Amsterdam but includes the municipalities ofZaanstad andWormerland.
The smallest of these areas is themunicipality of Amsterdam with a population of about 870,000 in 2021.[236] The larger conurbation had a population of over one million. It includes the municipalities of Zaanstad, Wormerland, Oostzaan, Diemen, and Amstelveen only, as well as the municipality of Amsterdam. Greater Amsterdam includes 15 municipalities and had a population of 1,400,000 in 2021.[236] Though much larger in area, the population of this area is only slightly larger, because the definition excludes the relatively populous municipality ofZaanstad. The largest area by population, theAmsterdam Metropolitan Area (Dutch: Metropoolregio Amsterdam), has a population of 2,33 million.[237] It includes for instance Zaanstad, Wormerland, Muiden, Abcoude, Haarlem, Almere and Lelystad but excludesGraft-De Rijp. Amsterdam is part of the conglomerate metropolitan areaRandstad, with a total population of 6,659,300 inhabitants.[238]
Of these various metropolitan area configurations, only theStadsregio Amsterdam (City Region of Amsterdam) has a formal governmental status. Its responsibilities include regional spatial planning and metropolitan public transport concessions.[239]
Under theDutch Constitution, Amsterdam is thecapital of the Netherlands. Since the 1983 constitutional revision, the constitution mentions "Amsterdam" and "capital" in chapter 2, article 32: The king's confirmation by oath and his coronation take place in "the capital Amsterdam" ("de hoofdstad Amsterdam").[240] Previous versions of the constitution only mentioned "the city of Amsterdam" ("de stad Amsterdam").[241] For a royal investiture, therefore, theStates General of the Netherlands (the Dutch Parliament) meets for a ceremonial joint session in Amsterdam. The ceremony traditionally takes place at theNieuwe Kerk onDam Square, immediately after the former monarch has signed the act of abdication at the nearbyRoyal Palace of Amsterdam. Normally, however, the Parliament sits inThe Hague, the city which has historically been the seat of theDutch government, theDutch monarchy, and theDutch supreme court. Foreign embassies are also located in The Hague.
The coat of arms of Amsterdam is composed of several historical elements. First and centre are threeSt Andrew's crosses, aligned in a vertical band on the city's shield (although Amsterdam'spatron saint wasSaint Nicholas). These St Andrew's crosses can also be found on the city shields of neighboursAmstelveen andOuder-Amstel. This part of the coat of arms is the basis of theflag of Amsterdam, flown by the city government, but also ascivil ensign for ships registered in Amsterdam. Second is theImperial Crown of Austria. In 1489, out of gratitude for services and loans,Maximilian I awarded Amsterdam the right to adorn its coat of arms with theking's crown. Then, in 1508, this was replaced with Maximilian'simperial crown when he was crownedHoly Roman Emperor. In the early years of the 17th century, Maximilian's crown in Amsterdam's coat of arms was again replaced, this time with the crown ofEmperor Rudolph II, a crown that became the ImperialCrown of Austria. The lions date from the late 16th century, when the city and province became part of theRepublic of the Seven United Netherlands. Last came the city's official motto:Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig ("Heroic, Determined, Merciful"), bestowed on the city in 1947 byQueen Wilhelmina, in recognition of the city's bravery during the Second World War.
Four fare-free GVB ferries carry pedestrians and cyclists across theIJ lake to theborough ofAmsterdam-Noord, and two fare-charging ferries run east and west along the harbour. There are also privately operated water taxis, a water bus, a boat-sharing operation, electric rental boats, and canal cruises, that transport people along Amsterdam's waterways.
To facilitate easier transport to the centre of Amsterdam, the city has various P+R Locations where people can park their car at an affordable price and transfer to one of the numerous public transport lines.[242]
Amsterdam was intended in 1932 to be the hub, a kind ofKilometre Zero, of thehighway system of the Netherlands,[243] with freeways numbered One to Eight planned to originate from the city.[243] The outbreak of the Second World War and shifting priorities led to the current situation, where only roadsA1,A2, andA4 originate from Amsterdam according to the original plan. TheA3 toRotterdam was cancelled in 1970 to conserve theGroene Hart. RoadA8, leading north toZaandam and theA10Ringroad were opened between 1968 and 1974.[244] Besides the A1, A2, A4 and A8, several freeways, such as theA7 andA6, carry traffic mainly bound for Amsterdam.
TheA10 ringroad surrounding the city connects Amsterdam with the Dutchnational network of freeways.Interchanges on the A10 allow cars to enter the city by transferring to one of the 18city roads, numbered S101 through toS118. These city roads are regional roads withoutgrade separation, and sometimes without acentral reservation. Most are accessible by cyclists. The S100Centrumring is a smaller ring road circumnavigating the city's centre.
In the city centre, driving a car is discouraged. Parking fees are expensive, and many streets are closed to cars or areone-way.[245] The local government sponsorscarsharing andcarpooling initiatives such asAutodelen andMeerijden.nu.[246] The local government has also started removing parking spaces in the city in 2019, with the goal of removing 10,000 spaces (roughly 1,500 per year) by 2025.[247]
Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is less than 20 minutes by train fromAmsterdam Centraal station and is served by domestic and international intercity trains, such asEurostar andEuroCity. Schiphol is the largest airport in the Netherlands, the third-largest in Europe, and the 14th-largest in the world in terms of passengers. It handles over 68 million passengers per year and is the home base of four airlines,KLM,Transavia,Martinair andArkefly.[252] As of 2014[update], Schiphol was the fifthbusiest airport in the world measured by international passenger numbers.[253] This airport is 4 meters below sea level.[254] Although Schiphol is internationally known as Amsterdam Schiphol Airport it lies in the neighbouring municipality of Haarlemmermeer, southwest of the city.
Police bicyclist crossing a bridge over the PrinsengrachtBicyclist at Amsterdam
Amsterdam is one of the mostbicycle-friendly large cities in the world and is a centre ofbicycle culture with good facilities for cyclists such as bike paths andbike racks, and several guarded bike storage garages (fietsenstalling) which can be used.
According to the most recent figures published by the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), in 2015 the 442,693 households (850,000 residents) in Amsterdam together owned 847,000 bicycles – 1.91 bicycles per household.[255] Theft is widespread—in 2011, about 83,000 bicycles were stolen in Amsterdam.[256] Bicycles are used by all socio-economic groups because of their convenience, Amsterdam's small size, the 400 km (249 mi) of bike paths,[257] the flat terrain, and the inconvenience of driving an automobile.[258]
There are over 200 primary schools in Amsterdam.[261] Some of these primary schools base their teachings on particular pedagogic theories like the variousMontessori schools. The biggest Montessori high school in Amsterdam is theMontessori Lyceum Amsterdam. Many schools, however, are based on religion. This used to be primarily Roman Catholicism and various Protestant denominations, but with the influx of Muslim immigrants, there has been a rise in the number of Islamic schools. Jewish schools can be found in the southern suburbs of Amsterdam.
Amsterdam is noted for having five independent grammar schools (Dutch: gymnasia), theVossius Gymnasium,Barlaeus Gymnasium, St.Ignatius Gymnasium,Het 4e Gymnasium and the Cygnus Gymnasium where a classical curriculum includingLatin andclassical Greek is taught. Though believed until recently by many to be an anachronistic and elitist concept that would soon die out, the gymnasia have recently experienced a revival, leading to the formation of a fourth and fifth grammar school in which the three aforementioned schools participate. Most secondary schools in Amsterdam offer a variety of different levels of education in the same school. The city also has various colleges ranging from art and design to politics and economics which are mostly also available for students coming from other countries.
Amsterdam is a prominent centre for national and international media. Some locally based newspapers includeHet Parool, a national daily paper;De Telegraaf, the largest Dutch daily newspaper; the daily newspapersTrouw,de Volkskrant andNRC;De Groene Amsterdammer, a weekly newspaper; the free newspapersMetro andThe Holland Times (printed in English).
Amsterdam is home to the second-largest Dutch commercial TV groupSBS Broadcasting Group, consisting of TV stationsSBS 6,Net 5, andVeronica. However, Amsterdam is not considered 'the media city of the Netherlands'. The town ofHilversum, 30 km (19 mi) south-east of Amsterdam, has been crowned with this unofficial title. Hilversum is the principal centre for radio and television broadcasting in the Netherlands.Radio Netherlands, heard worldwide via shortwave radio since the 1920s, is also based there. Hilversum is home to an extensive complex of audio and television studios belonging to the national broadcast production company NOS, as well as to the studios and offices of all the Dutch public broadcasting organisations and many commercial TV production companies.
In 2012, the music video for "Live My Life" by Far East Movement was filmed in various parts of Amsterdam.
From the late 1960s onwards many buildings in Amsterdam have beensquatted both for housing and for use as social centres.[263] A number of these squats have legalised and become well known, such asOCCII,OT301,Paradiso andVrankrijk.
^"Bevolkingsontwikkeling; regio per maand".Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved3 May 2022.filter region Regio's > Gemeenten per Provincie > Amsterdam (and Regio's > Groot-Amsterdam (CR))
^Nello-Deakin, Samuel, and Anna Nikolaeva. "The human infrastructure of a cycling city: Amsterdam through the eyes of international newcomers." Urban Geography 42.3 (2021): 289–311.
^Feddes, Fred, Marjolein de Lange, and Marco te Brömmelstroet. "Hard work in paradise. The contested making of Amsterdam as a cycling city." The Politics of Cycling Infrastructure. Policy Press, 2020. 133–156.
^After Athens in 1888 and Florence in 1986, Amsterdam was in 1986 chosen as theEuropean Capital of Culture, confirming its eminent position in Europe and the Netherlands. SeeEC.europa.eu for an overview of the European cities and capitals of culture over the years.Archived 14 December 2008 at theWayback Machine
^"Port Statistics 2015"(PDF) (Press release). Rotterdam Port Authority. May 2016. p. 6. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 9 February 2017. Retrieved9 February 2017.
^Musterd, Sako. "Immigration and ethnic segregation in the Netherlands with a special focus on Amsterdam."Ethnic Minorities and Inter-Ethnic Relations in Context. Routledge, 2017. 287–303.
^Bogucka, M. (1983), "The Baltic and Amsterdam in the First Half of the 17th Century", in Wieringa, W. J. (ed.),The Interactions of Amsterdam and Antwerp with the Baltic region, 1400–1800, Werken, Springer Netherlands, pp. 51–57,doi:10.1007/978-94-017-5952-6_7,ISBN9789401759526
^Israel, Jonathan (Fall 1989). "Sephardic Immigration into the Dutch Republic, 1595–1672".Studia Rosenthaliana.23:45–53.JSTOR41481727.
^Warshawsky, Matthew D. (July 2018). ""All True, All Holy, All Divine": Jewish Identity in the Polemics and Letters of Isaac Orobio de Castro, a Former Portuguese New Christian in 1600s Amsterdam".Journal of Jewish Identities.11 (2):267–283.doi:10.1353/jji.2018.0017.ISSN1939-7941.S2CID165686842.During the 1600s, Amsterdam stood out from these other locales as a center of settlement by people of Sephardic, or Iberian Jewish
^"Geloven in Amsterdam"(PDF). Archived from the original on 24 July 2013. Retrieved21 November 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^Taverne, E. R. M. (1978).In 't land van belofte, in de nieuwe stadt: ideaal en werkelijkheid van de stadsuitleg in de Republiek, 1580–1680 (In the land of promise, in the kinky city: ideal and reality of the city lay-out in the [Dutch] Republic, 1580–1680). Maarssen: Schwartz.ISBN978-90-6179-024-2.
^"Amsterdam kans op 'evenementenstad'" [Amsterdam has a chance to be an 'event city'].AT5 Nieuws (in Dutch). Amsterdam. 17 May 2008. Retrieved10 May 2012.Naast de prijs van nationale evenementenstad is Koninginnedag voorgedragen als het publieksevenement van het jaar. (In addition to the prize for national event city,Queens Day is nominated as the public event of the year.)
^Owens, Lynn (2009).Cracking the Movement: Narrating the Decline of the Amsterdam Squatters' Movement. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University.ISBN9780271034638.
Mak, Geert (1994),Een kleine geschiedenis van Amsterdam, Amsterdam & Antwerp: Atlas,ISBN978-9045019536
Charles Caspers & Peter Jan Margry (2017),Het Mirakel van Amsterdam. Biografie van een betwiste devotie (Amsterdam, Prometheus).
Nusteling, Hubert (1985),Welvaart en werkgelegenheid in Amsterdam 1540–1860. Een relaas over demografie, economie en sociale politiek van een wereldstad, Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw,ISBN978-9067070829
Ramaer, J.C. (1921), "Middelpunten der bewoning in Nederland, voorheen en thans",TAG 2e Serie, vol. 38
Van Dillen, J.G. (1929),Bronnen tot de geschiedenis van het bedrijfsleven en het gildewezen van Amsterdam, The Hague{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Van Leeuwen, M.; Oeppen, J.E. (1993), "Reconstructing the Demographic Regime of Amsterdam 1681–1920",Economic and Social History in the Netherlands, vol. 5, pp. 61–102,hdl:10622/09251669-1993-001
de Waard, M., ed.Imagining Global Amsterdam: History, Culture, and Geography in a World City. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press 2013.ISBN9789089643674
Feddes, Fred.A Millennium of Amsterdam: Spatial History of a Marvelous City. Bussum: Thoth 2012.ISBN978-9068685954
Jonker, Joost.Merchants, Bankers, Middlemen: The Amsterdam Money Market during the First Half of the Nineteenth Century. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press 1996ISBN9789057420016
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