Ammonium chloride is aninorganic chemical compound with thechemical formulaNH4Cl, also written as[NH4]Cl. It is anammonium salt ofhydrogen chloride. It consists of ammoniumcations[NH4]+ andchlorideanionsCl−. It is a white crystallinesalt that is highly soluble in water. Solutions of ammonium chloride are mildly acidic. In its naturally occurring mineralogic form, it is known assalammoniac. The mineral is commonly formed on burningcoal dumps from condensation of coal-derived gases. It is also found around some types of volcanic vents. It is mainly used as fertilizer and a flavouring agent insome types ofliquorice. It is a product of the reaction ofhydrochloric acid andammonia.
Demonstration of a synthesis of ammonium chloride. Concentrated ammonia and hydrochloric acid solutions are added to two gas-washing bottles, respectively. Using rubber pumps, air (acting as gas-carrier) is injected in the gas-washing tubes causing the streams of ammonia and hydrogen chloride in air to collide and react giving the solid product, ammonium chloride.
Not only is that method the principal one for the manufacture of ammonium chloride, but also it is used to minimize ammonia release in some industrial operations.
Ammonium chloride occurs naturally involcanic regions, forming on volcanic rocks near fume-releasing vents (fumaroles). The crystals deposit directly from the gaseous state and tend to be short-lived, as they dissolve easily in water.[11]
The dominant application of ammonium chloride is as anitrogen source infertilizers (corresponding to 90% of the world production of ammonium chloride) such as chloroammonium phosphate.[13] The maincrops fertilized this way arerice andwheat inAsia.[14][15] When using ammonium chloride as a nitrogen fertilizer for plants, the appropriate concentration is applied to provide sufficient nutrients without causing harm.[16] Ammonium chloride is approximately 26% nitrogen by weight and can be used to supply nitrogen to plants, especially those preferring slightly acidic conditions.[17] The concentration for nitrogen fertilization in solution is between 50 and 100 milligrams of nitrogen per liter of water (mg N/L), which is equivalent to 50–100 parts per million (ppm) nitrogen, which translates to approximately 0.2 to 0.4 grams of ammonium chloride per liter of water.[18] Ammonium chloride can acidify the soil over time, so soil pH is regularly monitored, especially when growing plants sensitive to acidic conditions.[19] Some plants are sensitive to chloride ions (e.g., avocados, beans, grapes), so applying ammonium chloride to such plants should be done with extra caution to prevent chloride toxicity.[20] While ammonium chloride can be beneficial as a nitrogen source, improper use can harm plants and the environment.[21]
Ammonium chloride solutions are generally stable and can be stored for a certain period if kept under appropriate conditions,[22] that is in airtight containers (to prevent contamination, evaporation and hydrolysis), away from light (to preventphotodegradation) and heat sources (to reduce microbial growth and chemical degradation), and if contamination is prevented.[22] In agricultural applications the solution is used shortly after preparation,[23] for the following reasons:
Nutrient-rich solutions can promote the growth of microorganisms over time, so that microbial activity can alter the chemical composition of the solution, potentially reducing its efficacy as a fertilizer and introducing pathogens to plants.[24]
Over time, water can evaporate from the solution, especially if not stored in a tightly sealed container, which increases the concentration of ammonium chloride, and may lead to over-fertilization and potential damage to plants when applied.[25]
While ammonium chloride is relatively stable, prolonged storage may lead to minor changes inpH due to ongoing hydrolysis, especially if the solution is exposed to air, potentially impacting plants sensitive to acidity of the soil.[26]
If the water used is not distilled or deionized, dissolved minerals and impurities may precipitate over time, altering the nutrient balance of the solution.[27]
Ammonium chloride was used inpyrotechnics in the 18th century but was superseded by safer and lesshygroscopic chemicals. Its purpose was to provide a chlorine donor to enhance the green and blue colours from copper ions in the flame.
Ammonium chloride is used as aflux in preparing metals to be tin coated, galvanized or soldered. It works as a flux by cleaning the surface of workpieces by reacting with the metal oxides at the surface to form a volatile metal chloride. For that purpose, it is sold in blocks at hardware stores for use in cleaning the tip of a soldering iron, and it can also be included in solder as flux.
Ammonium chloride is used as anexpectorant in cough medicine. Its expectorant action is caused by irritative action on the bronchial mucosa, which causes the production of excess respiratory tract fluid, which presumably is easier to cough up. Ammonium salts are an irritant to the gastric mucosa and may induce nausea and vomiting.
Ammonium chloride is used as a systemicacidifying agent in treatment of severe metabolicalkalosis, in oral acid loading test to diagnose distal renal tubular acidosis, to maintain theurine at an acid pH in the treatment of some urinary-tract disorders.[citation needed]
Ammonium chloride, under the namesal ammoniac orsalmiak is used asfood additive under theE number E510, working as a yeast nutrient in breadmaking and as an acidifier.[31] It is a feed supplement for cattle and an ingredient in nutritive media for yeasts and many microorganisms.
Ammonium chloride is used in baking to give cookies a very crisp texture, to spice up dark sweets calledsalty liquorice (popular in the Nordic countries,Benelux and northern Germany),[32] and in the liquorSalmiakki Koskenkorva for flavouring. In Turkey, Iran, Tajikistan, India, Pakistan and Arab countries it is called "noshader" and is used to improve the crispness of snacks such assamosas andjalebi.
Inpaleontology, ammonium chloride vapor isdeposited onfossils, where the substance forms a brilliant white, easily removed and fairly harmless and inert layer of tiny crystals that covers up any coloration the fossil may have, and if lighted at an angle highly enhances contrast in photographic documentation of three-dimensional specimens.[35] The same technique is applied inarchaeology to eliminate reflection on glass and similar specimens for photography.[36]
In organic synthesis saturated NH4Cl solution is typically used to quench reaction mixtures.[37]
Giant squid and some other large squid species maintain neutralbuoyancy inseawater through an ammonium chloride solution which is found throughout their bodies and is less dense than seawater.[39] This differs from the method of flotation used by most fish, which involves a gas-filledswim bladder.
Around the turn of the 20th century, ammonium chloride was used in aqueous solution as the electrolyte inLeclanché cells that found a commercial use as the "local battery" in subscribers' telephone installations. Those cells later evolved intozinc–carbon batteries still using ammonium chloride as electrolyte.
Ammonium chloride is known to be an aggressive cleaning agent.
A penetrating and intense reddish brown color is stained into concrete surfaces with a mixture of ammonium chloride andferric chloride.[40] Pre-treatment with acid is unnecessary.
Ammonium chloride can also be used in the process of making albumen silver prints, commonly known asalbumen prints. In traditional photographic printing processes of the 19th century, ammonium chloride served as a key component in preparing the albumen solution used to coat the photographic paper. Albumen printing was the dominant photographic printing technique from the 1850s through the 1890s, prized for its fine detail and rich tonal rendition. The incorporation of ammonium chloride in the albumen solution was a significant factor in the quality and popularity of this photographic process.[41] The process involves mixing egg whites (albumen) with ammonium chloride to create a viscous solution. This mixture is then applied as a thin layer onto paper, which, after drying, forms a smooth and glossy surface.[42] Ammonium chloride acts as a salting agent, contributing chloride ions that are essential for forming light-sensitive silver chloride when the coated paper is subsequently sensitized with a solution of silver nitrate. Upon exposure to light, the silver chloride reduces to metallic silver, creating a visible image.[43] The use of ammonium chloride, as opposed to sodium chloride (common salt), can influence the contrast and tonal range of the final print, often yielding warmer tones and greater image clarity.[44]
Ammonium chloride is used in a ~5% aqueous solution to work on oil wells with clay swelling problems. Other uses include in hair shampoo, in the glue that bonds plywood, and in cleaning products. In hair shampoo, it is used as a thickening agent in ammonium-based surfactant systems such asammonium lauryl sulfate. Ammonium chloride is used in the textile and leather industry, in dyeing, tanning, textile printing and cotton clustering. In woodworking, a solution of ammonium chloride and water, when applied to unfinished wood, will burn when subjected to a heat gun resulting in a branding iron mark without use of a branding iron. The solution can be painted onto the wood or applied with a common rubber stamp.[45]
It was in deposits near the temple of Ammon in Siwa that the Romans extracted ammonium chloride, which they calledsal ammoniacus (Ammonian Salt) in honor of the SiwanBerber godAmmon.Sal ammoniacus is itself borrowed from the ancient Greekammoniakos, which meant 'relating to Ammon'.[46][47]
Pliny, in Book XXXI of hisNatural History, refers to a salt produced in the Roman province ofCyrenaica namedhammoniacum, so called because of its proximity to the nearby Temple ofJupiter Amun (Greek ἌμμωνAmmon).[48][49] However, the description Pliny gives of the salt does not conform to the properties of ammonium chloride. According toHerbert Hoover's commentary in his English translation ofGeorgius Agricola'sDe re metallica, it is likely to have been common sea salt.[50] Nevertheless, that salt ultimately gaveammonia andammonium compounds their name.
The earliest mention of ammonium chloride was in 554 in China.[51] At that time, ammonium chloride came from two sources: (1) the vents of underground coal fires in Central Asia, specifically, in theTian Shan mountains (which extend fromXinjiang province of northwestern China throughKyrgyzstan) as well as in theAlay (or Alai) mountains of southwestern Kyrgyzstan, and (2) thefumaroles of the volcanoMount Taftan in southeasternIran.[52][53][54] (Indeed, the word for ammonium chloride in several Asian languages derives from the Iranian phraseanosh adur (immortal fire), a reference to the underground fires.)[55] Ammonium chloride was then transported along theSilk Road eastwards to China and westwards to the Muslim lands and Europe.
Around 800 A.D. the Arabian chemist Jabir ibn Hayyan discovered ammonium chloride in the soot that resulted from burning camel dung, and this source became an alternative to those in Central Asia.[56][57]
TheJabirian alchemists were the authors of theJabirian corpus, tentatively dated toc. 850 – c. 950.[58] The word for ammonium chloride in the Jabirian corpus wasnošāder, Arabian in origin. WhereasGreek alchemical texts had been almost exclusively focused on the use of mineral substances, Jabirian alchemy pioneered the use of vegetable and animal substances, and so represented an innovative shift towards 'organic chemistry'.[59] In the Jabirian corpus, the production of ammonium chloride from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) is described. These are the oldest known instructions for deriving an inorganic compound from organic substances by chemical means.[60]
One of the innovations in Jabirian alchemy was the addition of ammonium chloride to the category of chemical substances known as 'spirits' (i.e., strongly volatile substances). This included both naturally occurringsal ammoniac and synthetic ammonium chloride produced from organic substances. The addition of sal ammoniac to the list of 'spirits' can perhaps also be seen as a product of this new focus on organic chemistry.
The first attested reference tosal ammoniac as ammonium chloride is in thePseudo-Geber workDe inventione veritatis, where a preparation of sal ammoniac is given in the chapterDe Salis ammoniaci præparatione,sal ammoniacus (genitive: salis ammoniaci) being a common name in Latin of the Middle Ages for sal ammoniac.[61]
^Seidell, Atherton; Linke, William F. (1919).Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Compounds (2nd ed.). D. van Nostrand Company. Results here are multiplied by water's density at temperature of solution for unit conversion.
^Breñosa, A.G; Rodríguez, F; Moreno, M (1993). "Phase transition temperatures and thermal hysteresis in NH4Cl1−xBrx (x≤0.05) crystals determined through charge transfer spectra of Cu2+(II) centres".Solid State Communications.85 (2): 135.Bibcode:1993SSCom..85..135B.doi:10.1016/0038-1098(93)90362-Q.
^Kishi, Atsushi (2012). "Ammonium Compounds".Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (7th ed.). Wiley-VCH. pp. 1–6.doi:10.1002/14356007.a02_161.pub3 (inactive 11 July 2025).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
^Sanjuan, Juan; Ventura, Yamini; Wenkert, Derek (2012). "Ammonium Chloride as a Nitrogen Source in Asian Agriculture: Effects on Rice and Wheat Production".Journal of Plant Nutrition.35 (8):1234–1245.doi:10.1080/01904167.2012.686993 (inactive 11 July 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
^Havlin, John L.; Beaton, James D.; Tisdale, Samuel L.; Nelson, Werner L. (2005). "Nitrogen Fertilizers".Soil Fertility and Fertilizers: An Introduction to Nutrient Management (7th ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 146–148.ISBN978-0130278241.
^Jones, J. Benton Jr. (2005). "Formulating Hydroponic Nutrient Solutions".Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soilless Grower (2nd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 181–183.ISBN978-0849331671.
^Fageria, N. K. (2007). "Influence of Nitrogen Sources on Soil Acidity Under Common Bean".Scientia Agricola.64 (5):583–587.doi:10.1590/S0103-90162007000500011.
^Goulding, Keith W. T. (2000). "Nitrate leaching from arable and horticultural land".Soil Use and Management.16 (4):145–151.doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2000.tb00189.x.
^Shaviv, Avner; Johnson, Craig M. (1982). "Controlled Release Fertilizers to Increase Efficiency of Nitrogen Use in Agricultural Systems".Fertilizer Research.3 (1):263–279.doi:10.1007/BF01063471.PMID67590.
^Marschner, Petra (2012). "Functions of Fertilizer Nutrients".Marschner's Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants (3rd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 597–598.ISBN978-0-12-384905-2.
^Jones, J. Benton Jr. (2005). "Formulating Hydroponic Nutrient Solutions".Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for the Soilless Grower (2nd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 181–183.ISBN978-0-8493-3167-1.
^Conkling, John A.; Mocella, Christopher J. (2010).Chemistry of Pyrotechnics (2nd ed.). CRC Press.ISBN978-1574447408.
^Davis, Tenney L (2012).Chemistry of Powder and Explosives. Angriff Press.ISBN978-0945001171.
^Kosanke, K. L.; Kosanke, B. J.; Sturman, Barry T.; Winokur, Robert M. (2012).Encyclopedic Dictionary of Pyrotechnics (and Related Subjects). Journal of Pyrotechnics.ISBN978-1889526195.
^Smith, Jim; Hong-Shum, Lily (2011).Food Additives Data Book (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 540.ISBN978-1444397734.
^Eder, Josef Maria (1978).History of Photography. Dover Publications. pp. 338–342.ISBN978-0486235868.
^Reilly, James M. (1980).The Albumen & Salted Paper Book: The History and Practice of Photographic Printing, 1840–1895. Light Impressions Corporation. pp. 28–35.ISBN978-1933360782.
^Hoover, Herbert (1950).Georgius Agricola De Re Metallica - Translated from the first Latin edition of 1556. New York: Dover Publications. p. 560.ISBN978-0486600062.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^That ammonium chloride was imported into China fromSogdiana in Central Asia is mentioned in theWei shu (History of theWei [peoples of what is now China]), which was compiled byWei Shou 魏收 (506–572). (Sutton et al., 2008), p. 596. However, it may have been imported into China even before 150: there is a brief mention of what might have been ammonium chloride in the ChineseChou I Tshan Thung Chhi Chu 周易参同契註 [The Kinship of the Three and the Book of Changes, with Commentary] (142) byWei Boyang.Needham et al., p. 439.
^The locations of the sources of ammonium chloride in the burning coal deposits of Central Asia are shown on the following map:
Sutton et al., pp. 595-596, especially Fig. 6 (map).
Ammonium chloride was also found in burning coal deposits in Europe.
Jameson, Robert,Manual of Mineralogy … (Edinburgh, Scotland: Archibald Constable & Co. and Hurst, Robinson & Co., 1821), p. 12.From p. 12: "Volcanic Sal Ammoniac. …Geographic Situation.—It occurs in the vicinity of burning beds of coal, both in Scotland and England; and in many volcanic districts in different parts of the world."
Nicol, James,Manual of Mineralogy; … (Edinburgh, Scotland: Adam and Charles Black and Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1849).p. 336: "It [i.e., ammonium chloride] is sometimes found near ignited coal seams, as at St Etienne in France, near Newcastle, and in Scotland."
Bischof, pp. 213–214: "Chloride of ammonium is also found at other places, as a sublimate arising from the combustion of coal strata; for instance, at St. Etienne, near Lyons, at Newcastle and at Glan in Rhenish Bavaria."
^The Arab geographerYaqut al-Hamawi (1179–1229) or "Jakut" mentioned that ammonium chloride was harvested from "Damindan" (Tamindan), a valley on the volcano Mount Taftan in southwestern Iran. See: von Lippmann, E.O., "Wan and wofür erscheint zuerst die Bezeichnung Ammoniak?" (When and why did the term "ammonia" first appear?) In: Lippmann, Edmund O., ed.,Abhandlungen und Vorträge zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften (Essays and Lectures on the History of the Sciences), vol. 2, (Leipzig, Germany: Veit & Co., 1913),pp. 232–233:Archived 25 July 2020 at theWayback Machine" … berichtet er, daß der Höhle Demindân in Persien ein Dampf entströme und sich beim Erkalten als Nuschadir niederschlage, den man von da aus in alle Welt versende." ( … he [i.e., Yaqut] reported that a vapor streams out of the caves at Damindan in Persia and upon cooling precipitates asnushadir [i.e., ammonium chloride], which is conveyed from there throughout the world.) In discussing ancient China's sources of ammonium chloride.Needham et al., p. 439: "The most westerly region of all [of the regions that produce ammonium chloride] lies further to the south, in Persian Baluchistan, where the Damindān (now Tamindan) valley in the Kūh-i-Taftan range, a relatively inactive volcanic massif, produces sal ammoniac [i.e., ammonium chloride] down to this day."
^Ammonium chloride was later harvested from other volcanoes: The Arabs harvested it fromMount Etna inSicily during the 10th century.
The Arab geographerAl-Muqaddasi (c. 945/946 - 991) mentioned that ammonium chloride was obtained from Mt. Etna. See: Lippmann, Edmund Oskar von,Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie … (Origin and Spread of Alchemy … ), vol. 1, (Berlin, Germany: Springer, 1919), p. 404.From p. 404:Archived 16 April 2021 at theWayback Machine" … er erwähnt, daß der dortige Salmiak nicht von gleicher Güte ist wie der Siciliens, dessen Lager jetzt aber schon erschöpft seien, … " ( … he mentions that the salmiak [i.e., ammonium chloride] there [i.e., inFergana ] is not of equal value to that of Sicily’s, whose deposits are now, however, exhausted, … )
The Arab geographeribn Hawqal (d. ca. 978) also mentioned that ammonium chloride was obtained from fumaroles on the slopes of Mt. Etna.Ruska, Julius (1928). "Die Salmiak in die Geschichte der Alchemie" [Ammonium chloride in the history of alchemy].Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie.41 (50):1321–1324.Bibcode:1928AngCh..41.1321R.doi:10.1002/ange.19280415006.
Breislak, Scipion,Essais mineralogiques sur la solfatare de Pouzzole (Naples, Italy: Janvier Giaccio, 1792), p. 140.From p. 140:"Deux endroits de la Solfatare, celui où est construite la fontaine de vapeurs, et un autre à peu de distance produisent le muriate d'ammoniaque." (Two places on Solfatare — that where the fumerole has formed and another a little distance away — produce muriate of ammonia [i.e., ammonium chloride].)
(Lémery, Nicolas) (1705) "Diverses observations chimiques. I." (Various chemical observations. I.),Histoire de l'Académie royale des sciences: année MDCCV, avec les memoires … , p. 66.From p. 66:Archived 14 August 2017 at theWayback Machine"Monsieur Lémery a eu entre les mains un Sel tiré du Mont Vesuve, & que l'on appelle Sel Armoniac naturel." (Mr. Lémery got hold of a salt [which was] extracted from Mount Vesuvius, and which is called natural Armenian salt [i.e., ammonium chloride].)
Ammonium chloride was also found on the island ofRéunion in the western Indian Ocean.
Marcellin, Jean Baptiste Geneviève, Baron Bory de Saint-Vincent,Dictionnaire classique d'histoire naturelle, vol. 1 (Paris, France: Rey et Gravier, 1822).p. 270:Archived 25 July 2020 at theWayback Machine"On trouve ce Minéral dans presque tous les volcans. … Elle se trouve également en Tartarie, dans le pays des Kalmuks; en Perse, au Thibet, dans l'île de Bourbon, en Bucharie, … " (One finds this mineral [i.e., ammonium chloride] in nearly every volcano … It is found also inTartary [i.e., a region extending from Central Asia eastwards to the Pacific Ocean], in the country of theKalmyks, in Persia, in Tibet, on Bourbon Island [i.e., Réunion], in Bucharia [i.e., a region of Central Asia extending fromTurfan throughUzbekistan andTajikistan ] … )
Bunsen, Robert (1847)"Ueber den innern Zusammenhang der pseudovulkanischen Erscheinungen Islands"Archived 16 April 2021 at theWayback Machine (On the intrinsic relationship of pseudo-volcanic phenomena of Iceland),Annalen der Chemie and Pharmacie,62 : 1–59, see pp. 8–9.From pp. 8–9:Archived 17 October 2020 at theWayback Machine"Im Juli 1846, also nur wenige Monate nach dem Ausbruch des Vulkans, wo ich in diesen Gegenden verweilte, zeigte sich der untere Theil dieses Stromes mit dampfenden Fumarolen übersäet, in denen sich eine solche Menge reiner, zum Theil sehr schön krystallisirter Salmiak sublimirte, dass man dort, trotz der unaufhörlichen Regengüsse, dieses wertvolle Salz zu Hunderten von Pfunden hätte sammeln können." (In July 1846, thus only months after the eruption of the volcano [i.e., Mt. Hekla], where I stayed in this region, the lower part of this [lava] flow appeared studded with steaming fumaroles, in which such a quantity of pure and sometimes very beautifully crystallized ammonium chloride had sublimated that one could have collected there — despite ceaseless downpours — hundreds of pounds of this valuable salt.)
Del Campo, Ángel (1912) "Los sublimados blancos del volcán Chinyero (Canarias)" (The white sublimates of the volcano Chinyero in the Canary Islands),Anales de la Sociedad Española de Física y Química,10 : 431–449.
Shipley, J.W. (1919). "Scientific results of the Katmai expeditions of the National Geographic Society: VII. Ammonia and nitrous nitrogen in the rain water of southwestern Alaska".Ohio Journal of Science.19 (4):230–234.hdl:1811/2027/V19N04_230.pdf.
^The term for "ammonium chloride" in Arabic isnūshādir ornūshādur, in Sanskrit,navasadaru ornavasara, in Chinese,nao sha, and similarly in Armenian and Syriac.Sutton et al., p. 596.
^InDe Lapidibus (About Stones), which is attributed to "Pseudo-Aristotle" and which dates from ca. 750–870 A.D., is a brief statement that ammonium chloride was created at the public baths (from the soot of the fires that served to heat the bath waters). Ruska, Julius,Das Steinbuch des Aristoteles mit literargeschichtlichen Untersuchungen nach der arabischen Handschrift der Bibliothèque Nationale [The book of stones of Aristotle with literary-historical investigations into the Arabic manuscript of the Bibliothèque Nationale] (Heidelberg, Germany: Carl Winter, 1912), p. 191.From p. 191 (in Latin):"Et unus lapis est qui vocatur nasciadhori. liscianada qui fit in balneis." (And there is one stone that is callednasciadhor [i.e.,nûshâdur, ammonium chloride] orliscianada that is made [i.e., created] in the baths.) See also:Sutton et al., p. 595.
^The Persian geographerAl-Istakhri (d. 957 A.D.) stated that ammonium chloride was obtained from the soot of camel dung that was burned to heat the public baths in Alexandria. See: (Lippmann, 1919), p. 403.From p. 403:Archived 17 October 2020 at theWayback Machine Istakhri" … bestätigt das persische Vorkommen … des Nûschâdirs, 'den die Ägypter aus dem Rauche ihrer Bäder haben' [aus dem Rauche des zum Heizen gebräuchlichen getrockneten Kamelmistes], … " (Istakhri confirms the occurrence in Persia … of ammonium chloride (nûshâdir), "which the Egyptians have [obtained] from the smoke of their baths" [i.e., from the smoke of the dried camel dung that's used for heating] … ) See also:Sutton et al., p. 595. The production of ammonium chloride from the soot of burned animal dung was reported early in the 18th century by a number of European observers:
Sicard, Claude (S.J.),Nouveaux Mémoires de la Compagnie de Jesus dans le Levant [New memoirs of the Jesuits in the Levant], vol. 2 (Paris, France: Nicolas le Clerc, 1717), pp. 96–98.From pp. 96–98:" … nous arrivâmes sur le midy àDesmayer … " ( … we arrived at midday atDesmayer, a town [in the Nile delta] which is inhabited only by Muslims. It is in this place that the most esteemed sal armoniac [i.e., ammonium chloride] in all Egypt is made. This salt is made in ovens, whose top is vented lengthwise and in several places. One places in these vents twenty or thirty round glass bottles, about a foot and a half in diameter, with a neck of half a foot [across]. The bottles are sealed well: filled with soot and a little sea salt, and animal urine. Then one constructs a layer of loam and brick [on top of the oven], which covers everything except the tops of the bottles' necks, which [remain open] to the air. Then a fire is lit in the oven, and it is maintained continually for three days and three nights. The phlegm [i.e., liquid components] of the material contained in the bottles is driven off, and the acid salts and alkalies meet and cling to each other near the neck, [where they] form a white, round mass. The operation being completed, all of the bottles are broken, and these masses are removed, which are called "sal armoniac". It is to be noted that the soot of which I spoke, is produced by the smoke of pats, which is calledgellée in Arabic. They [i.e., the pats] are formed from animal manure. Any other smoke is unlikely to condense into sal armoniac.)
(Lemere) (1716)"Observations sur la nature et la composition du sel ammoniac,"Archived 26 July 2020 at theWayback MachineHistoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences: année MDCCXX, avec les memoires … , pp. 195–207. On p. 202, Lemere states that ammonium chloride can be made by combiningammonium carbonate andhydrochloric acid:"L'on prend de l'esprit ou du sel volatil d'urine; on jette dessus de l'esprit de sel marin, jusqu'à ce qu'il ne se fasse plus de fermentation; on fait évaporer au sable la liqueur, qui, étant séche, fournit un sel salé qui a les mêmes effets que le sel ammoniac." (One takes the spirit or volatile salt of urine [i.e., ammonium carbonate]; one tosses on it spirit of sea salt [i.e., hydrochloric acid], until it no longer makes fermentation [i.e., effervesces]; one evaporates, on a sand [bath], the solution, which, [upon] being dry, furnishes a salty solid which has the same effects as ammonium chloride.)
Duhamel du Monceau, Henri-Louis (1735) "Sur le sel ammoniac,"Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences: année MDCCXXXV, avec les memoires … ,pp. 106–116; 414–434; 483–504.Archived 25 July 2020 at theWayback Machine
Beckmann, Johann,Beyträge zur Geschichte der Erfindungen [Contributions to the history of inventions] (Leipzig, Germany: Paul Gotthelf Kummer, 1805), vol. 5, 4. Salmiak,pp. 254–285. English translations: (1) Beckmann, Johann with William Johnston, trans.,A History of Inventions and Discoveries, 2nd ed. (London, England: Walker, 1814), vol. 4,pp. 360–384.Archived 20 October 2020 at theWayback Machine ; and (2) Beckmann, Johann with William Johnston, trans.,A History of Inventions, Discoveries, and Origins, 4th ed. (London, England: Henry G. Bohn, 1846), vol. 2,pp. 396–407.Archived 16 April 2021 at theWayback Machine
Bischof, Gustav with Benjamin H. Paul and J. Drummond, trans. (1854).Elements of Chemical and Physical Geology. Vol. 1. London, England: the Cavendish Society.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Delva, Thijs (2017). "The Abbasid Activist Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār as the Father of Jābir b. Ḥayyān: An Influential Hypothesis Revisited".Journal of Abbasid Studies.4 (1):35–61.doi:10.1163/22142371-12340030.
Kraus, Paul (1942–1943).Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale.ISBN978-3-487-09115-0.OCLC468740510.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Needham, Joseph; Ho Ping-Yü; Lu Gwei-Djen; Sivin, Nathan (1980).Science and Civilization in China. Vol. 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part IV:Spagyrical discovery and invention: apparatus, theories and gifts. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521086905.
Ruska, Julius (1923a). "Sal ammoniacus, Nušādir und Salmiak".Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse.14 (5).doi:10.11588/diglit.38046.
Sezgin, Fuat (1971).Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums, Band IV: Alchimie, Chemie, Botanik, Agrikultur bis ca. 430 H. Leiden: Brill. pp. 132–269.ISBN9789004020092.
