American Samoa consists of the eastern part of theSamoan archipelago – the inhabitedvolcanic islands ofTutuila,Aunuʻu,Ofu,Olosega andTaʻū and the uninhabitedRose Atoll – as well asSwains Island, a remote coralatoll in theTokelau volcanic island group. The total land area is 77 square miles (199 km2), slightly larger thanWashington, D.C.; including itsterritorial waters, the total area is 117,500 square miles (304,000 km2), about the size of New Zealand.[7] American Samoa has a tropical climate, with 90 percent of its land covered by rainforests. As of 2024, the population is approximately 47,400 and concentrated on Tutuila, which hosts the capital and largest settlement,Pago Pago. The vast majority of residents are indigenous ethnicSamoans, most of whom are fluent in the official languages,Samoan andEnglish.[8]
Inhabited byPolynesians since prehistory, American Samoa was first contacted by Europeans in the 18th century. The islands attracted missionaries, explorers, and mariners, particularly to the highly protected natural harbor of Pago Pago. The United States took possession of American Samoa in the late 19th century, developing it into a major naval outpost; the territory's strategic value was reinforced by theSecond World War and subsequent Cold War. In 1967, American Samoa became self-governing with the adoption of a constitution; its local government isrepublican in form, with separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches. It remains officiallyunorganized and is thus directly administered by the federal government. American Samoa is listed among seventeen "non-self-governing territories" but is a member of several intergovernmental organizations, including thePacific Community,Pacific Islands Forum (PIF),Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), andInternational Olympic Committee (IOC).[9]
Due to the territory's strategic location, the U.S. military has a significant presence and plays a major role in its economy and society. The territory is noted for having the highest rate of military enlistment of any U.S. state or territory; as of 2021, the localU.S. Army recruiting station inPago Pago ranked first in recruitment.[7][10] Tuna products are the main exports, with the U.S. proper serving as the largest trading partner. Tourism is a nascent but underdeveloped sector, owing in part to the territory's relative geographic isolation, which also accounts for its high rate of poverty and emigration.
Since the Deeds of Cession were signed in 1900 and 1904, Samoans have avoided further integration into the U.S. system. In 1949, the Department of Interior moved to incorporate American Samoa through an Organic Act. Afraid that incorporation might undermine the Samoan culture and traditional land ownership, Samoan matai intervened and Congress halted incorporation. Instead, Samoa created its own government, the Samoan Fono, based on indigenous system of governance. Since then, Samoans have declined to establish a federal district court, refused birthright citizenship, and remains the only U.S. territory with its own immigration system.[11]
Many consider residents of American Samoa to bepolitically disenfranchised, with no voting representation in the U.S. Congress, though American Samoa itself has a democratic system of governance. However, many Samoans have prioritized indigenous culture and government over integration into the United States.[citation needed] American Samoa is the only permanently inhabited territory of the United States in whichcitizenship is not granted at birth, and people born there are considered "non-citizen nationals" with limited rights. A primary reason that Samoans do not have birthright citizenship is that many Samoans oppose birthright citizenship, as evidenced by the unanimous resolution of the Samoan Fono in 2021 against birthright citizenship,[12] and multiple statements and actions by government officials over the decades. The elected representatives of American Samoan people unanimously fear that birthright citizenship, which may complicate the territory's political structure, would lead to the erosion of indigenous governance, collective ownership of indigenous lands, and the indigenous language of Samoa, gagana Samoa.[citation needed]
The origin of the name "Samoa" means "Holy Center", taken from acompound of theSamoansa ("sacred") andmoa ("center"). The name is alternatively derived from a local chieftain named Samoa or an indigenous word meaning "place of themoa", a now-extinct bird,[13][14] though the bird was known only fromNew Zealand.[15]
Although the sovereign state ofSamoa changed its name from Western Samoa in 1997, the territory is also sometimes referred to asEastern Samoa to distingush from its neighbor.[16]
Traditionaloral literature of Samoa and Manuʻa talks of a widespreadPolynesian network orconfederacy (or "empire") that was prehistorically ruled by the successiveTui Manuʻa dynasties. Manuan genealogies and religious oral literature also suggest that the Tui Manuʻa had long been one of the most prestigious and powerfulparamounts of Samoa. Oral history suggests that the Tui Manuʻa kings governed a confederacy of far-flung islands which included Tutuila,[17][18] as well as smaller western Pacificchiefdoms andPolynesian outliers such asUvea,Futuna,Tokelau,Tuvalu and bigger islands like the Samoa in the North. Commerce and exchange routes between the western Polynesian societies are well documented and it is speculated that the Tui Manuʻa dynasty grew through its success in obtaining control and manufacturing goods such as finely woven ceremonial mats "('Ie Konga)" for the Tu'i Tonga, whaleivory "tabua" for their Fijian masters,obsidian andbasalt tools, chiefly red feathers, and seashells reserved for royalty (such as polishednautilus and the eggcowry).
Contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century. DutchmanJacob Roggeveen was the first known European to sight theSamoan Islands in 1722, calling them the "Baumann Islands" after one of his captains. The next explorer to visit the islands wasLouis-Antoine de Bougainville, who named them the "Îles des Navigateurs" in 1768. British explorerJames Cook recorded the island names in 1773, but never visited.[19]
The 1789 visit byLapérouse was ended byan attack, onTutuila island where Lapérouse's men were trying to obtain water. His second in commandCapt. de Langle, and scientistRobert de Lamanon and several of his crew were surrounded by over a thousand Samoans and killed. La Pérouse named the island "Massacre Island", and the bay nearAasu is still calledMassacre Bay.[19]
In 1872, CommanderRichard W. Meade of the USSNarragansett sailed from Hawai'i toPago Pago to explore the establishment of a U.S. naval station. At the request ofHenry A. Peirce, theU.S. minister to Hawai'i, he was also tasked with negotiating a treaty that would secure American interests in Sāmoa. TheNarragansett reached Pago Pago on February 14, and Meade informed High Chief Mauga of his intention to lease land for a naval base. Mauga granted the United States exclusive rights to build and maintain such a station in exchange for “the friendship and protection of the great government of the United States.” During his stay, Meade also arranged commercial port regulations for Pago Pago with Mauga.[22]
In March 1889, anImperial German naval force entered a village in Samoa, and in doing so destroyed some American property. Three American warships then entered theApia harbor and prepared to engage the three German warships found there. Before any shots were fired,a typhoon wrecked both the American and German ships. A compulsoryarmistice was then called because of the lack of any warships.[23]
Tuimanuʻa Elisala Alalamua, the last official titleholder ofTui Manuʻa (1899–1909)
At the turn of the 20th century, international rivalries in the latter half of the century were settled by the 1899Tripartite Convention in which Germany and the United States partitioned theSamoan Islands into two:[24] the eastern island group became a territory of the United States (Tutuila in 1900 and officially Manuʻa in 1904)[25] and is today known as American Samoa; the western islands, by far the greater landmass, became known asGerman Samoa, after Britain gave up all claims to Samoa and in return accepted the termination of German rights in Tonga and certain areas in theSolomon Islands andWest Africa.[26] Forerunners to theTripartite Convention of 1899 were the Washington Conference of 1887, theTreaty of Berlin of 1889 and the Anglo-German Agreement on Samoa of 1899.
On July 17, 1911, the U.S. Naval Station Tutuila, which was composed of Tutuila,Aunuʻu and Manuʻa, was officially renamed American Samoa.[29][30] People ofManuʻa had been unhappy since they were left out of the name "Naval Station Tutuila". In May 1911, GovernorWilliam Michael Crose authored a letter to the Secretary of the Navy conveying the sentiments of Manuʻa. The department responded that the people should choose a name for their new territory. The traditional leaders chose "American Samoa", and, on July 7, 1911, thesolicitor general of the Navy authorized the governor to proclaim it as the name for the new territory.[31]: 209
In 1918, during the final stages ofWorld War I, theGreat Influenza epidemic had taken its toll, spreading rapidly from country to country. American Samoa became one of the few places in the world (the others beingNew Caledonia andMarajó island in Brazil) to have proactively prevented any deaths during the pandemic through the quick response fromGovernor John Martin Poyer after hearing news reports of the outbreak on the radio and requestingquarantine ships from the U.S. mainland. The result of Poyer's quick actions earned him theNavy Cross from theU.S. Navy. With this distinction, American Samoans regarded Poyer as their hero for what he had done to prevent the deadly disease. The neighboring New Zealand territory at the time,Western Samoa, suffered the most of allPacific islands, with 90% of the population infected; 30% of adult men, 22% of adult women and 10% of children died.[33] Poyer offered assistance to help his New Zealand counterparts but was refused by the administrator of Western Samoa,Robert Logan, who became outraged after witnessing the number of quarantine ships surrounding American Samoa. Angered by this, Logan cut off communications with his American counterparts.
After World War I, during the time of theMau movement in Western Samoa (then aLeague of Nations mandate governed by New Zealand), there was a correspondingAmerican Samoa Mau movement led bySamuelu Ripley, a World War I veteran who was fromLeone village, Tutuila. After meetings on the United States mainland, he was prevented from disembarking from the ship that brought him home to American Samoa and was not allowed to return because the American Samoa Mau movement was suppressed by the U.S. Navy. In 1930 theU.S. Congress sent a committee to investigate the status of American Samoa, led by Americans who had a part in the overthrow of theKingdom of Hawaii.
DuringWorld War II,U.S. Marines stationed in Samoa outnumbered the local population and had a huge cultural influence. Young Samoan men from age 14 and above were combat-trained byU.S. military personnel. Samoans served in various capacities during World War II, including as combatants, medical personnel, code personnel, and ship repairmen.
In 1949, Organic Act 4500, aU.S. Department of Interior–sponsored attempt to incorporate American Samoa, was introduced in Congress. It was ultimately defeated, primarily through the efforts of Samoan chiefs, led by Tuiasosopo Mariota.[35] The efforts of these chiefs led to the creation of a territorial legislature, theAmerican Samoa Fono, which meets in the village ofFagatogo. In 1950 the Department of the Interior began to administer American Samoa.[36]
By 1956, the U.S. Navy-appointed governor was replaced byPeter Tali Coleman, who was locally elected. Although technically considered "unorganized" since the U.S. Congress has not passed anOrganic Act for the territory, American Samoa is self-governing under aconstitution that became effective on July 1, 1967. The U.S. Territory of American Samoa is on theUnited Nations list of non-self-governing territories, a listing which is disputed by the territorial government officials, who do consider themselves to be self-governing.
While the two Samoas share language and ethnicity, their cultures have recently followed different paths, with American Samoans often emigrating toHawaiʻi and the U.S. mainland, and adopting many U.S. customs, such as the playing ofAmerican football andbaseball.Samoans have tended to emigrate instead toNew Zealand, whose influence has made the sports ofrugby andcricket more popular in the western Samoan islands. Travel writerPaul Theroux noted that there were marked differences between the societies inSamoa and American Samoa.
On August 13, 1999, theUnited Nations granted American Samoa "observer seat" status. Six days later, American Samoa officially recognized bothSamoan andEnglish as its official languages.[39]
In 2001 and 2003, the United States unsuccessfully sought to have American Samoa removed from theUnited Nations' decolonization list, arguing that the territory should not be considered a colony.[40]
American Samoans have a high rate of service in theU.S. Armed Forces.[41] Because of economic hardship, military service has been seen as an opportunity in American Samoa and otherU.S. Overseas territories.[42]
The federalFair Minimum Wage Act of 2007 started gradual adjustments to the territorial minimum wage to bring it up to the level for U.S. states.[43]
On December 13, 1784, French navigatorJean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse landed two exploration parties on Tutuila's north shore: one from the shipBoussole atFagasā, and the other fromL'Astrolabe atAʻasu. One of the cooks, David, died of "scorbutic dropsy". On December 11, twelve members of Lapérouse's crew (including First OfficerPaul Antoine Fleuriot de Langle) were killed in a violent attack by Samoans at Aʻasu Bay, Tutuila, thereafter known as "Massacre Bay", which Lapérouse described as "this den, more fearful from its treacherous situation and the cruelty of its inhabitants than the lair of a lion or a tiger". This incident gave Samoa a reputation for savagery that kept Europeans away until the arrival of the first Christian missionaries four decades later. On December 12, at Aʻasu Bay, Lapérouse ordered his gunners to fire one cannonball amid the attackers who had killed his men the day before and were now returning to launch another attack. He later wrote in his journal "I could have destroyed or sunk a hundred canoes, with more than 500 people in them: but I was afraid of striking the wrong victims; the call of my conscience saved their lives."[44][45]
On December 19, 1912, English writerWilliam Somerset Maugham arrived in Pago Pago, allegedly accompanied by a missionary and Miss Sadie Thompson. His visit inspired his short story "Rain" which later became plays and three major motion pictures. The building still stands where Maugham stayed and has been renamed theSadie Thompson Building. Today, it is a prominent restaurant and inn.[46]
On November 2, 1921, American Samoa's 13thnaval governor, CommanderWarren Jay Terhune, died by suicide with a pistol in the bathroom of the government mansion, overlooking the entrance to Pago Pago Harbor. His body was discovered by Government House's cook, SDI[clarification needed] First Class Felisiano Debid Ahchica, USN. His ghost is rumored to walk about the grounds at night.
Pago Pago Harbor today and inter-island dock area
On August 17, 1924,Margaret Mead arrived in American Samoa aboard the SSSonoma to begin fieldwork for her doctoral dissertation in anthropology at Columbia University, where she was a student of ProfessorFranz Boas. Her workComing of Age in Samoa was published in 1928, at the time becoming the most widely read book in the field ofanthropology. The book has sparked years of ongoing and intense debate and controversy. Mead returned to American Samoa in 1971 for the dedication of theJean P. Haydon Museum.
TheSamoan Clipper
In 1938, the noted aviatorEd Musick and his crew died on thePan American World Airways S-42Samoan Clipper over Pago Pago, while on a survey flight toAuckland,New Zealand. Sometime after takeoff, the aircraft experienced trouble, and Musick turned it back toward Pago Pago. While the crew dumped fuel in preparation for an emergency landing, an explosion occurred that tore the aircraft apart.[47]
On November 24, 1939, American Samoa's last execution to date was carried out. A man named Imoa of Fagatogo was convicted of stabbing a person named Sella to death and was hanged in theCustoms House.[48][49] The popular Samoan song "Faʻafofoga Samoa" is based on this, said to be the final words of Imoa.[citation needed]
On January 13, 1942, at 2:26a.m., a Japanese submarine surfaced off Tutuila between Southworth Point andFagasa Bay and fired about 15 shells from its 5.5-inch deck gun at the U.S. Naval Station Tutuila over the next 10 minutes. The first shell struck the rear of Frank Shimasaki's store, ironically owned by one of Tutuila's few Japanese residents. The store was closed, as Mr. Shimasaki had been interned as an enemy alien. The next shell caused slight damage to the naval dispensary, the third landed on the lawn behind the naval quarters known as "Centipede Row," and the fourth struck the stone seawall outside the customs house. The other rounds fell harmlessly into the harbor. As one writer described it, "The fire was not returned, notwithstanding the eagerness of the Samoan Marines to test their skill against the enemy... No American or Samoan Marines were wounded."[50] Commander Edwin B. Robinson was bicycling behind Centipede Row and was wounded in the knee by a piece ofshrapnel, and "a member of the colorful native Fita Fita Guard" received minor injuries; they were the only casualties. This was the only time the Japanese attacked Tutuila duringWorld War II, although "Japanese submarines had patrolled the waters around Samoa before the war, and continued to be active there throughout the war."[50]
On August 24, 1943, First LadyEleanor Roosevelt visited American Samoa and inspected the Fita Fita Guard and Band and the First Samoan Battalion of U.S. Marine Corps Reserve at the U.S. Naval Station American Samoa.[51]: 178 [52] The fact that First Lady reviewed the troops led to further assurance that Tutuila Island was considered safe.[53] Her presence underscored that World War II had passed by American Samoa. While the Fita Fita band played, Eleanor Roosevelt inspected the guard.[54]
On October 18, 1966, PresidentLyndon Baines Johnson and First LadyLady Bird Johnson visited American Samoa. Mrs. Johnson dedicated the "Manulele Tausala" ("Lady Bird") Elementary School inNuʻuuli, which was named after her. Johnson is the only US president to have visited American Samoa, while Mrs. Johnson was the second First Lady, preceded by Eleanor Roosevelt in 1943.[51]: 192 The territory's only hospital was renamed theLBJ Tropical Medical Center in honor of President Johnson.[55]
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, American Samoa played a pivotal role in five of theApollo Program missions. The astronauts landed several hundred miles from Pago and were transported to the islands en route back to the mainland. PresidentRichard Nixon gave threeMoon rocks to the American Samoan government, which are currently on display in the Jean P. Haydon Museum along with a flag carried to the Moon on one of the missions.[56]
In November 1970,Pope Paul VI visited American Samoa in a brief but lavish greeting.[31]: 292
On January 30, 1974,Pan Am Flight 806 fromAuckland, New Zealand, crashed at Pago Pago International Airport at 10:41pm, with 91 passengers aboard. 86 people were killed, including Captain Leroy A. Petersen and the entire flight crew. Four of the five surviving passengers were seriously injured, with the other only slightly injured. The airliner was destroyed by the impact and succeeding fire. The crash was attributed to poor visibility, pilot error, or wind shear since a violent storm was raging at the time.[57] In January 2014, filmmaker Paul Crompton visited the territory to interview local residents for a documentary film about the 1974 crash.
As part of theFlag Day celebrations on April 17, 1980, a U.S. NavyP-3 Orion patrol plane fromPatrol Squadron 50 took off with six skydivers from the U.S. Army's Hawaii-based Tropic Lightning Parachute Club. The airplane contacted the Solo Ridge-Mount Alavaaerial tramway cable across Pago Pago harbor, which sheared off its vertical stabilizer. The aircraft crashed, demolishing a wing of theRainmaker Hotel and killing all six crew members and one civilian. The six skydivers had already left the aircraft during a demonstration jump. A memorial monument is erected on Mt. Mauga O Aliʻi to honor their memory.
On July 22, 2010, Detective Lieutenant Lusila Brown was fatally shot outside the temporary High Court building in Fagatogo. It was the first time in more than 15 years that a police officer was killed in the line of duty. The last was Sa Fuimaono, who drowned after saving a teenager from rough seas.[59]
Mike Pence was the third sitting U.S. vice president to visit American Samoa (afterDan Quayle andJoe Biden)[61] when he made a stopover in Pago Pago in April 2017.[62] He addressed 200 soldiers here during his refueling stop.[63] U.S. Secretary of StateRex Tillerson visited town on June 3, 2017.[64]
On September 28, 2009, at 17:48:11 UTC, an 8.1magnitudeearthquake struck 120 miles (190 km) off the coast of American Samoa, followed by smaller aftershocks.[65] It was thelargest earthquake of 2009. The quake occurred on theouter rise of theKermadec-Tonga Subduction Zone. This is part of thePacific Ring of Fire, wheretectonic plates in the Earth'slithosphere meet, and earthquakes and volcanic activity are common. The quake struck 11.2 miles (18.0 km) below the ocean floor and generated an onsettingtsunami that killed more than 170 people in the Samoa Islands andTonga.[66][67] Four waves with heights from 15 feet (4.6 m) to 20 feet (6.1 m) high were reported to have reached up to one mile (1.6km) inland on the island of Tutuila.[68]
Thejudiciary of American Samoa is composed of theHigh Court of American Samoa, a District Court, and village courts.[75] The High Court and District Court are located in Fagatogo, near the Fono.[76][77][74] The High Court is led by a Chief Justice and an Associate Justice, appointed by the Secretary of the Interior.[78] Other judges are appointed by the governor upon the recommendation of the Chief Justice and confirmed by the Senate.[79][80]
There is also the traditional village politics of the Samoa Islands, the "faʻamatai" and the "faʻa Sāmoa", which continues in American Samoa and independent Samoa, and which interacts across these current boundaries. The faʻa Sāmoa is the language and customs, and the faʻamatai are the protocols of the "fono" (council) and the chief system. The faʻamatai and the fono take place at all levels of the Samoan body politic, from the family to the village, to the region, to national matters.
Theʻaiga is the family unit of Samoan society, which differs from the Western sense of a family[81] in that it consists of an "extended family" based on the culture's communalsocio-political organization. The head of the ʻaiga is the matai. The matai (chiefs) are elected by consensus within the fono of the extended family and village(s) concerned. The matai and the fono, which are themselves made of matai, decide on the distribution of family exchanges and tenancy of communal lands. The majority of lands in American Samoa and independent Samoa arecommunal. A matai can represent a small family group or a great extended family that reaches across islands and to both American Samoa and independent Samoa.
In 2010, voters rejected apackage of amendments to the territorial constitution, which would have, among other things, allowed U.S. citizens to be legislators only if they had Samoan ancestry.
In 2012, both the Governor and American Samoa's delegate to the U.S. CongressEni Faleomavaega called for the populace to consider a move toward autonomy if not independence, with a mixed response.[82][83]
Message in the passport of an American Samoan stating that the passport holder is a national, not citizen, of the U.S
According to theImmigration and Nationality Act (INA), the people born in American Samoa – including those born onSwains Island – are "nationals but notcitizens of the United States at birth".[84][85][86] If a child is born on any of these islands to any U.S. citizen, then that child is considered a national and a citizen of the United States at birth.[87] All U.S. nationals have statutory rights to reside in all parts of the United States, and may apply for citizenship bynaturalization after three months of residency by paying a fee, passing a test in English and civics, and taking an oath of allegiance to the United States.[88] All U.S. nationals also have the right to work in the United States, except in certain government jobs that specifically require U.S. citizenship.
The question of whether American Samoans should be granted citizenship is controversial in American Samoa, and the government of American Samoa is currently opposed to it.[89][90] Those against citizenship worry that it would lead to federal judges overturning American Samoa's unique political system and land ownership customs, in which one must be at least 50% of Samoan ancestry to acquire land and land ownership is controlled by local families andmatai.[90] Those in favor of citizenship claim the law discriminates against them unfairly, restricting their voting rights and their ability to serve in many public sector professions.[89]
In 2012, a group of American Samoans sued the federal government seeking recognition of birthright citizenship for American Samoans in the caseTuaua v. United States. In anamicus curiae brief filed in federal court, American Samoan Congressman Faleomavaega supported the legal interpretation that theCitizenship Clause of theFourteenth Amendment does not extendbirthright citizenship to United States nationals born in unincorporated territories.[91][92] In June 2015, theU.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia affirmed that Fourteenth Amendment citizenship guarantees did not apply to persons born in unincorporated territories and a year later the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the lower court's decision.[93]
In December 2019, U.S. District JudgeClark Waddoups struck down8 U.S.C.§ 1408(1) as facially unconstitutional, holding that "Persons born in American Samoa are citizens of the United States by the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment",[94] but theUnited States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit reversed the district court's judgment and found the statute constitutional.[95] On July 20, 2021, the Legislature of American Samoa unanimously passed a resolution in support of the 10th Circuit Court's decision to reverse.[96]
Unique among U.S. territories, American Samoa has its own immigration law, separate from thelaws that apply in other parts of the United States. U.S. nationals may freely reside in American Samoa.[d] The American Samoan government, via its Immigration Office, controls the migration of foreign nationals to the islands.[102] Special application forms exist for migration to American Samoa based on family or employment sponsorship.[103]
Unlike all other permanently inhabited U.S. jurisdictions (states,District of Columbia,Puerto Rico,U.S. Virgin Islands,Guam andNorthern Mariana Islands), American Samoa is not considered a U.S. state for the purposes of the U.S. Immigration and Nationality Act.[104] As a result, there is no path for immigrants to American Samoa to apply for U.S. citizenship, or U.S. nationality at all, without permanent residence in another U.S. jurisdiction.[105][106] In addition, foreign nationals who do havelawful permanent residence in the United States may be considered to have abandoned it if they have moved to live in American Samoa, and time spent there does not count in the required period of U.S. presence for naturalization.[107]
U.S. nationals without U.S. citizenship (the status of most American Samoans) have the right to reside in all parts of the United States without immigration restrictions. They also have the same rights as lawful permanent residents to sponsor foreign family members to immigrate to the United States (they may sponsor spouses and unmarried children), but not the same rights as U.S. citizens (who may also sponsor parents, married children, and siblings).[108]
Under American Samoan law, land ownership is subject to racial restrictions.[109] Since 1900, there have been three main categories of land ownership: native, individual, and freehold. Native land, which makes up over 90% of all land in the territory, is land under the communal ownership of anʻaiga, as opposed to the private ownership of an individual. Freehold land, which makes up only about 2% of the total, is land which was granted to foreigners before the U.S. took possession of the territory in 1900 and whose owners have not chosen to revert to native or individual land status.[109][110]
The American Samoa Code (Annotated) prohibits the transfer of ownership (whether by sale or otherwise) of any land other than freehold land to any person who has less than one-half native Samoan blood, which in this context includes both American and Western Samoa.[109] In addition, it is prohibited to transfer ownership of any native (communal) land to any person who is not a full-blooded native Samoan: this includes any person who has any non-native blood whatsoever, even if they are more than one-half native Samoan.[109][111]
InCraddick v. Territorial Registrar, 1 Am. Samoa 2d. 10, 14 (1980), the Appellate Division of the High Court of American Samoa held that while these laws created a classification based on race, they did not violate the guarantees of equal protection and due process contained in the U.S. Constitution and the Revised American Samoan Constitution. Given the cruciality of land ownership and the communal ownership structure to American Samoan culture, and the American Samoan government's vital and demonstrated interest in preserving Samoan land and culture, the Court found that the laws in question pursued a proper purpose rather than a discriminatory one, and, being necessary to achieve that purpose, were sufficiently justified and thus constitutional.[109]
The U.S. Embassy in Samoa notes that: "In July 1997 the Constitution was amended to change the country's name from Western Samoa to Samoa. Samoa had been known simply as Samoa in the United Nations since joining the organization in 1976. The neighboring U.S. territory of American Samoa protested the move, feeling that the change diminished its own Samoan identity. American Samoans still use the terms Western Samoa and Western Samoans."[112]
American Samoa is administratively divided into threedistricts – Western,Eastern andManuʻa – and two "unorganized" atolls,Swains Island and the uninhabitedRose Atoll. The districts are subdivided into counties and villages.Pago Pago, often cited as the capital of American Samoa,[b] is one of the largest villages and is located on the central part of Tutuila island inMaʻoputasi County.
American Samoa, located within the geographical region ofOceania, is one of only two possessions of the United States in theSouthern Hemisphere, the other beingJarvis Island. Its total land area is 76.1 square miles (197.1 km2) – slightly larger thanWashington, D.C. – consisting of five rugged,volcanic islands and two coralatolls.[119]
Cockscomb Point onPola Island is seen jutting into the ocean.
The highest mountains are:Lata Mountain (Taʻū), 3,170 ft (970 m);Matafao Peak, 2,141 ft (653 m); Piumafua (Olosega), 2,095 ft (639 m); and Tumutumu (Ofu), 1,621 ft (494 m).Mount Pioa, nicknamed the Rainmaker, is 1,718 ft (524 m).[31]: 3 American Samoa is also home to some of the world's highest sea cliffs at 3,000 ft (910 m).[122]
TheVailuluʻu seamount, anactive submerged volcano, lies 28 miles (45 km) east ofTaʻū in American Samoa. It was discovered in 1975 and has since been studied by an international team of scientists, contributing towards understanding of the Earth's fundamental processes.[123] Growing inside thesummit crater of Vailuluʻu is an active underwatervolcanic cone, named after Samoa's goddess of war,Nafanua.
In American Samoaforest cover is around 86% of the total land area, equivalent to 17,130 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 18,070 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 17,130 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 0 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 1% was reported to beprimary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 15% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 0% of the forest area was reported to be underpublic ownership, 100%private ownership and 0% with ownership listed as other or unknown.[124][125]
American Samoa has atropical climate all year round with two distinctseasons, thewet anddry season. The wet season is usually between December and March and the dry season is from April through to September with the average daily temperature around 81–83 °F (27–28 °C) all year round.
The climate is warm, tropical, and humid, averaging around 80 °F or 26.7 °C, with a variation of about 15 °F or 8 °C during the year. The southern hemisphere winter, from June to September, is the coolest time of the year. The summer months of December to March bring hotter temperatures, while the months from April to November are considered the "dry" season. Throughout the year, however, rain follows clouds blown in by the trade winds that rise from the east almost daily. The mountains of thePago Pago area, standing overPago Pago Harbor, catch these clouds, bringing an average of 200 inches or 5,100 millimeters of rainfall per year.[31]: 4
Locations of the Samoan Islands, including American Samoa
Climate change in American Samoa encompasses the effects ofclimate change, attributed to man-made increases in atmosphericcarbon dioxide, in the U.S. territory of American Samoa. The American Samoa Environmental Protection Agency (ASEPA) notes that the territory "has a fragile ecosystem" which is "directly and immediately impacted by global climate change".[130]
The Human Rights Measurement Initiative[131] finds that the climate crisis has worsened human rights conditions in American Samoa slightly (2.3 out of 6).[132] Human rights experts provided that the climate crisis has affected shores, fishers and resource availability, and that only a small group of people are able to connect the climate crisis with existing human rights conditions.[133]
The economic health of American Samoa reflects the trends in other populated U.S. territories, which are in turn dependent on federal appropriations. Federal dollars enter the economy through congressional appropriations, categorical grants,Social Security payments, and payments to Samoans retired from themilitary. Tuna canning is the backbone of the American Samoa economy. Cannery employment and local auxiliary businesses provide additional revenues for the territorial government. In the mid-1960s, efforts began to develop a tourism industry in American Samoa. Efforts were delayed due to issues with inconsistent airline service, insufficient high-quality accommodations, and the lack of well-trained workers in the hospitality and tourism industries. Agriculture and fishing still provide sustenance for local families.[31]: 8–9
Employment on the island falls into three relatively equal-sized categories of approximately 5,000 workers each: thepublic sector, the single remainingtunacannery, and the rest of theprivate sector.
There are only a fewfederal employees in American Samoa and a fewactive duty military personnel, except members of theU.S. Coast Guard, military recruiters, and some Full-Time Support staff at the Pele Army Reserve unit that maintains the facility and provides cadre, training, and logistics support. The Pele US Army Reserve Center is inTafuna,[134] and aU.S. Army andUnited States Marine Corps recruiting station is inNuʻuuli.
The overwhelming majority of public sector employees work for the American Samoa territorial government. One tuna cannery isStarKist, which exports several hundred million dollars' worth of canned tuna to the United States each year. In early 2007, the Samoan economy was highlighted in theCongress at the request ofEni Faleomavaega, the Samoan delegate to theUnited States House of Representatives, as it was not mentioned in theminimum wage bill. It was given no exemption from the coming increases, which he protested as unfair to the Samoan economy. House SpeakerNancy Pelosi initially granted his request for an exemption, but backed down after being accused of serving special interests, since tuna packing companyChicken of the Sea was based in her district. Samoa Packing, aChicken of the Seasubsidiary closed in 2009, citing bothminimum wage increases and increasing foreign competition, with the latter as the "main reason". Minimum wage in Samoa has been the topic of much debate, with the Samoan government and Chamber of Commerce strongly opposed, while businesses and workers hold nuanced views.[136][137]
From 2002 to 2007,real GDP of American Samoa increased at an average annual rate of 0.4 percent. The annual growth rates of real GDP ranged from −2.9 percent to +2.1 percent. The volatility in the growth rates of real GDP was primarily accounted for by changes in the exports of canned tuna. The tuna canning industry was the largest private employer in American Samoa during this period. In 2017, GDP in American Samoa decreased by 5.8%, but in 2018 it increased by 2.2%.[138]
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(May 2020)
D Source: 2008 American Samoa Statistical Yearbook.
From 2002 to 2007, the population of American Samoa increased at an average annual rate of 2.3 percent, and real GDP per capita decreased at an average annual rate of 1.9 percent.
Agricultural production covers for domestic needs and only a small share of fruits and vegetables are exported. According to figures as of 2013, the ratio between import and export is almost balanced. Many residents rely on transfer payments from relatives living on the mainland or from federal subsidies.[139]
Theunemployment rate was 29.8% in 2005 but improved to 23.8% as of 2010[update]. In 2020, American Samoa's GDP was $709million.[5] Its GDP per capita (PPP) was $11,200 as of 2016[update].[3]
TheFair Labor Standards Act of 1938 has contained special provisions for American Samoa since its inception, citing its limited economy.[140] American Samoan wages are based on the recommendations of a Special Industry Committee meeting bi-annually.[141] Originally, the act contained provisions for other territories, provisions which were phased out as those territories developed more diverse economies.[142]
In 2007, theFair Minimum Wage Act of 2007 was passed, increasing the minimum wage in American Samoa by 50¢ per hour in 2007 and another 50¢ per hour each year thereafter until the minimum wage in American Samoa equals thefederal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour in the United States.[143] In response to the minimum wage increase, theChicken of the Sea tuna canning plant was shut down in 2009, and 2,041 employees were laid off in the process.[144] The other major tuna canning plant in American Samoa isStarKist, which began laying off workers in August 2010, with plans to lay off a total of 800 workers due to the minimum wage increases and other rising operation costs.[145] American Samoa GovernorTogiola Tulafono suggested that, rather than laying off minimum wage workers, the companies could reduce salaries and bonuses of top-tier employees.[146]
As in other U.S. territories, the U.S. federal government imposespayroll taxes[147][148] and the equivalent self-employment tax[149] on income from work in American Samoa, but not thefederal income tax on income generated in American Samoa by its residents (except from work as U.S. government employees).[150] Instead, the government of American Samoa itself taxes the worldwide income of its residents, as well as the income generated there by nonresidents, largely under the same rules and rates as the U.S. tax code in effect in 2000,[151] with certain modifications such as a minimum tax rate of 4%.[152][153] A similar situation applies to corporations.[154] In 1983, the use of citizenship in taxation by American Samoa (due to its incorporation of the U.S. tax code) was ruled unconstitutional.[155]
The U.S. federal government does not imposeestate orgift taxes on property not located in the United States (states andDistrict of Columbia) owned by residents of a U.S. territory (including American Samoa) who are not U.S. citizens or who acquired U.S. citizenship by birth or naturalization in that same U.S. territory.[156] However, these taxes still apply to residents of a U.S. territory who acquired U.S. citizenship by birth or naturalization in a different part of the U.S. or by descent.[157] It has been argued that this distinction based on place of birth, and not only residence or citizenship, is a rare case of unconstitutional tax discrimination, but it has never been challenged in court.[158] The government of American Samoa itself does not impose estate or gift taxes.[159]
Unlike U.S. citizens, U.S. nationals without U.S. citizenship (the status of most American Samoans) who do not reside in the United States or any U.S. territory enjoy the unique combination of maintaining aU.S. passport and the right of return to the U.S. while not being subject to U.S. federal income tax on their non-U.S. income,[160] or to U.S. federal estate or gift taxes on their non-U.S. property.[161][162] U.S. citizens (or anyone) cannot acquire this status after birth.[163][164]
American Samoa does not impose a sales tax, but it imposes a general import tax of 8%.[165][166] American Samoa is an independentcustoms territory, whose importation rules and taxes differ from those applicable to other parts of the United States.[167][168]
In 2012 Michael Calabrese, Daniel Calarco, and Colin Richardson stated that American Samoa had the most expensive internet of any U.S. territory and that the speeds were only slightly superior to those ofdial-up internet in the U.S. Mainland in the 1990s. They also stated that many American Samoans are too poor to afford "high-speed internet".[170]
As of 2022, the population of American Samoa is estimated around 45,443 people.[3] The2020 census counted 49,710 people, 97.5% of whom lived on the largest island,Tutuila.[4][175] About 57.6% of the population were born in American Samoa, 28.6% in independentSamoa, 6.1% in other parts of the United States, 4.5% inAsia, 2.9% in other parts ofOceania, and 0.2% elsewhere. At least 69% of the population had a parent born outside American Samoa.[8]
In the 2020 census, 89.4% of the population reported at least partialSamoan ethnicity, 83.2% only Samoan, 5.8% Asian, 5.5% otherPacific island ethnicities, 4.4%mixed, and 1.1% other ethnicities.[178] TheSamoan language was spoken at home by 87.9% of the population, while 6.1% spoke otherPacific island languages, 3.3% spokeEnglish, 2.1% spoke anAsian language, and 0.5% spoke other languages; 47.2% of the population spoke English at home or "very well".[8] In 2022, Samoan and English were designated as official languages of the territory.[179] At least some of thedeaf population useSamoan Sign Language.
CIA Factbook 2010 estimate shows the religious affiliations of American Samoa as 98.3%Christian, other 1%, unaffiliated 0.7%.[3] World Christian Database 2010 estimate shows the religious affiliations of American Samoa as 98.3% Christian, 0.7%agnostic, 0.4%Chinese Universalist, 0.3%Buddhist and 0.3% followers of theBaháʼí Faith.[180]
American Samoa was home to one high school as of 1961, which existed due to the matai's pressure on the naval governor to transform the old Marine barracks atUtulei into a school. The teenagers of well-off and more politically connected families attended the school, which would later be known asSamoana High School. With a median age of 15, the demand for more high schools was increasing, and three new high schools were established by 1968. Another two soon followed, and by 1979, 2,800 high school students were attending six public and private high schools in American Samoa. Looking for a cost-effective way for educational reformation, GovernorH. Rex Lee introduced the public television system in 1964.[54]
When TV was introduced, there were 6,000 educational programs produced annually; by 1981, only one series comprising 40-minute lessons inEnglish language skills was still aired. One of the side effects ofadvertising in popular programming from the U.S. was an increase in sales ofover-the-counter drugs such asPepto Bismol andSominex, with television being directly blamed for the decline of village life.[187]
The Samoan culture has developed over 3,500 years and largely withstood interaction with European cultures. It was adapted well to the teachings ofChristianity. The Samoan language is still in use in daily exchange; however, English is widely used and also the legal official language. BesidesSamoan language classes and cultural courses, all instructions in public schools are in English. The basic unit of the American Samoa culture is theʻaiga (family). It consists of both immediate and extended family.
Thematai, or chief, is the head of the ʻaiga. The chief is the custodian of all ʻaiga properties. A village (nuʻu) is made up of several or many ʻaiga with a common or shared interest. Each ʻaiga is represented by their chief in the village councils.[31]: 5–6
SamoanTalipalau log drums at Piula Theological College, distant ancestor of the FijianLali drums
TheMusic of Samoa is a complex mix of cultures and traditions, with pre- and post-European contact histories. Since American colonization, popular traditions such asrap andhip hop have been integrated into Samoan music.
Traditional Samoanmusical instruments includes several different distinctive instruments, including afala, which is a rolled-up mat beaten with sticks and several types ofslit drum.
The1997 South Pacific Mini Games were the biggest international event ever to take place in American Samoa. The bid to host the games for the 23 participating countries was approved in May 1993. In January 1994, GovernorA. P. Lutali appointed Fuga Teleso to head the task force charged with game preparations, including the construction of a stadium. Groundbreaking was in January 1994. The Governor later handed the task force on preparations to Lieutenant Governor Togiola. The task force merged with the American Samoa National Olympics Committee to better coordinate and facilitate preparations. V.P. Willis Construction built the 1,500-seat stands. TheDepartment of Public Safety trained its force for special games security. The opening ceremony became extravagant where theU.S. Army Reserve carried the torch fromTula andLeone.[31]: 357–358
About 2,000 athletes, coaches, and sponsors attended from 19 countries and competed in 11 sports at the game. American Samoa fielded a team of 248 athletes. The team won 48 medals, 22 of which were gold medals, and American Samoa came in fourth overall in the ratings.American Samoa Rotary Club honored Fuga Tolani Teleso with the community's top award, the Paul Harris Fellowship Award, for his work on constructing theVeterans Memorial Stadium.[31]: 359
In 1982, yachters competed in the Hobie World Championship held inTahiti. American Samoa beat theApia team by half a point and won the Samoa Cup. In 1983, a team coached by Adele Satele-Galeai brought home the winning trophy from the Regional women's volleyball tournament inHawaii. Also in 1983, theSouth Pacific Games were held in Apia. American Samoa received 13 medals: four gold, four silver, and five bronze. That same year, three junior golfers made the cut out of 1,000 players to attend the World Junior Golf Tournament inSan Diego, California.[31]: 338
In 1987, American Samoa became the 167th member of theInternational Olympic Committee. The first South Pacific Junior Tennis Tournament was held at theTafuna courts in January 1990.[31]: 339
AfterWorld War II, a Welfare and Recreation Department was created. This department arranged bowling, softball, badminton tournaments, basketball, and volleyball at various Tutuila locations. Boxing matches and dancing also became popular activities.[189]
About 30 ethnic Samoans, all from American Samoa, currently play in theNational Football League, and more than 200 playNCAADivision Icollege football.[190] In recent years, it has been estimated that a Samoan male (either an American Samoan, or a Samoan living in the mainland United States) is anywhere from 40[191] to 56 times[190] more likely to play in the NFL than a non-Samoan American, giving American Samoa the nickname "Football Islands".[192] Samoans are the most disproportionately overrepresented ethnic group in the National Football League.[193][194]
Six-timeAll-ProJunior Seau was one of the most famous Americans of Samoan heritage ever to play in the NFL, having been elected to theNFL 1990s All-Decade Team andPro Football Hall of Fame.Pittsburgh Steelers safetyTroy Polamalu, though born and raised in the mainland United States, is another famous American of Samoan heritage to have played in the NFL, not having his hair cut since 2000 (and only because aUSC coach told him he had to) and wearing it down during games in honor of his heritage. The football culture was featured on60 Minutes on January 17, 2010.
The American Samoan men's national team features in the highly rated 2014 British filmNext Goal Wins. The film documents the team's2014 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign, in which they achieved their first-ever international win. Saelua andNicky Salapu, the man famous for being thegoalkeeper during the team's 31–0 loss to Australia in 2001, feature prominently in the film.[201][202] Afeature film adaptation of the documentary was released in 2023 and was directed byTaika Waititi.[203][204]
TheAmerican Samoa national rugby league team represents the country in internationalrugby league. The team competed in the 1988, 1992, 1998 and 2004Pacific Cup competitions. The team has also competed in the 2003 and 2004World Sevens qualifiers in the 2005 World Sevens. America Samoa's first match in the international Rugby League was in the 1988Pacific Cup againstTonga,Tonga won the match 38–14 which is still the biggest loss by an American Samoan side. American Samoa's biggest win was in 2004 againstNew Caledonia with a final score of 62–6.
Rugby union is a growing sport in American Samoa. The first rugby game recorded in American Samoa was in 1924, since then the development of the game had been heavily overshadowed by the influence ofAmerican football during the 1970s. The highest governing body of rugby in American Samoa is theAmerican Samoa Rugby Union which was founded in 1990 and was not affiliated with theIRB until 2012. Internationally, two American Samoans have played for theNew Zealand national rugby union team, known as theAll Blacks.Frank Solomon (born inPago Pago) became the first American national of Samoan descent to play for a New Zealand team. Considered a pacific pioneer in New Zealand rugby,[206] Solomon scored a try againstAustralia in the inauguralBledisloe Cup match in 1932, which New Zealand won 21–13.
The second American Samoan to play for the All Blacks isJerome Kaino (born inFagaʻalu). A native ofLeone, Kaino moved to New Zealand when he was four. In 2004, at age 21, he played his first match for New Zealand against theBarbarians where he scored his first try, contributing to New Zealand's 47–19 victory that resulted in him becoming a man of the match.[207] He also played a crucial role in theRugby World Cup 2011 playing every match in the tournament. He scored four tries in the event which led to New Zealand winning the final againstFrance 8–7. Kaino was also a key member of the2015 Rugby World Cup squad, where he played every match including a try he scored in the quarterfinals againstFrance which New Zealand won 62–13. He scored again in the semifinals againstSouth Africa, which New Zealand won 20–18. He played in the World Cup final againstAustralia where New Zealand won again 34–17 to become world champions for a record three times (1987, 2011, and 2015). Kaino is one of twenty New Zealand rugby players to have won theRugby World Cup twice, back to back in 2011 and 2015. In August 2015, the American Samoa Rugby Union Board selected Leota Toma Patu from the village of Leone as the coach for the Talavalu 15 men's team that represented American Samoa at the Ocean Cup 2015 in Papua New Guinea.
Professional wrestling: Several American Samoan athletes have been very visible inprofessional wrestling. TheAnoaʻi family in particular has had many of its members employed byWWE.
A team from theBureau of Outdoor Recreation conducted a parks survey on American Samoa in the 1960s. Their team recommended sites atCape Taputapu,Leʻala atVailoatai,Aʻoloau (the plateau), Matautuloa Point,Nuʻuuli,Matafao Peak,Pago Pago,Vaiʻava Strait, Anasosopo,ʻAoa, Cape Matautuloa, andAunuʻu Island. After an initial objection, Secretary Leʻiato gave his support and was appointed Chairman of the Territorial Parks and Recreation Committee. The first field meeting for a parkland acquisition was held between Judge Morrow on behalf of the government and the village council ofVatia to make thePola Island area a public park. The dredgePalolo was hired fromUpolu in January 1966 in order to dredge sand forUtulei Beach. A specialist in beach developments, Ala Varone of the Army, directed the project. The centerpiece of the park was to be at the head ofPago Pago Harbor, where it proposed a 13-acre site created by the dredge. The park would have facilities for sports and recreation as well as facilities for boats and the growing number of Asian immigrants arriving from Korea, Japan, and China.[31]: 285
The Department of Parks and Recreation was created by law in 1980 and the Parks Commission was also established.[31]: 315 In 1981, GovernorPeter Tali Coleman appointed Fuga Tolani Teleso as Director of Parks and Recreation. On May 25, 1984, a groundbreaking ceremony was held at the Onesosopo reclamation to initiate work on the first park in theEastern District.[31]: 332
At the urging of Paul Cox, High Chief Nafanua ofFalealupo, and the Bat Preservers Association, CongressmanFofō Iosefa Fiti Sunia introduced a bill in 1984 which would enter American Samoa into the Federal Fish and Wildlife Restoration Act. The purpose of the bill was to protect the ancientpaleotropical rainforests and theflying foxmegabat. The signing marked the beginning of American Samoa's entry into the U.S.National Park System. In July 1987, the National Park Service began establishing a federal park, theNational Park of American Samoa. An initial appropriation of $400,000 was made in 1989. It contains one of the world's most remarkable rainforest and coastal reef ecologies and spreads across three islands. One of the most popular sites onTutuila Island include Pola Rock, a rise of sheer rock formations that protrudes over 400feet (120m) above the ocean's surface. It is located off the shores ofVatia.[31]: 332 On September 19, 1991, GovernorPeter Tali Coleman andDepartment of the Interior secretaryManuel Lujan signed leases formalizing the establishment of the fiftieth U.S. National Park.[31]: 335
National Natural Landmarks
The ASG Parks and Recreation oversees the maintenance of all public parks, including theAmanave Mini Park, Lions Park inTafuna, Onesosopo Park inAua, Malaloa Mini Park,Fagaʻalu Park,Tia Seu Lupe historical site atFatuoaiga,Pago Pago Park, Pago Pago Tennis Courts, the Little League Softball Field, Tony Solaʻita Baseball Field, Solo Ridge at the Utulei Tramway, Utulei Beach Park and Suʻigaulaoleatuvasa inUtulei.[208]
American Samoa has seven areas designated as National Natural Landmarks on Tutuila Island. This program is administrated by the U.S. National Park Service and the areas contain unique ecological or geological features. ExceptVaiʻava Strait, none of the areas are within the National Park of American Samoa.[209]: 281 American Samoa's sevenNational Natural Landmarks (NNL) were designated in 1972:
Turtles include the threatenedgreen sea turtle and the endangeredhawksbill sea turtle. Hawksbill sea turtles tend to nest on Tutuila beaches, while the green sea turtle is most common onRose Atoll.[212] Tutuila has the highest number of nesting turtles, consisting of around fifty nesting females per year.[213]
American Samoa is home to one species of amphibian: thecane toad. Biologists estimate that there are over two million toads on Tutuila.[209]: 252
915 nearshore fish species have been recorded in American Samoa, compared to only 460 nearshore fish species inHawaii.[209]: 20 With over 950 species of native fish and 250 coral species, American Samoa has the greatestmarine biodiversity in the United States.[214] TheNational Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa is the largest marine sanctuary in the U.S. It is home to over 150 species of coral, including some of the largest and oldest corals of their genus in the world.[215]
TheSamoa flying fox is only found in Fiji and the Samoan Islands.
Megabats are the only native mammal in American Samoa. The islands are home to two species of fruit bats:Pacific flying fox andSamoa flying fox. Thesheath-tailed bat is another species found here, which is a smaller insect-eating bat. In 1992, the American Samoa Government banned the hunting of fruit bats to help their populations recover.[216] The Samoa flying fox is only found inFiji and the Samoan Islands.[211][209]: 200
From 1995 to 2000, the population of Samoa flying fox remained stable at about 900 animals on Tutuila, and 100 in theManuʻa Islands.[217] As of 2000, scientists from the American Samoa Department of Marine and Wildlife Resource estimated that there are fewer than 5,500 Pacific flying foxes in American Samoa, and an estimated 900 or fewer Samoa flying foxes.[209]: 199 The best and biggest knownroost on Tutuila Island for the sheath-tailed bat is in the Anapeʻape Cove nearĀfono.[218]
Amalau Valley on Tutuila's north coast offers great roadside views of many bird species and both species of fruit bat.[209]: 274 The valley has been called a prime bird- and bat-watching area.[219][220][221]
Sixteen of the Samoan Islands' 34 bird species are found nowhere else on Earth. This includes the critically endangeredtooth-billed pigeon.[222] Four species of birds are only found in the Manuʻa Islands and not on Tutuila. These include American Samoa's only parrot, theblue-crowned lory. Other special birds to Manuʻa are thelesser shrikebill and thefriendly ground-dove. Thespotless crake has only been observed on Taʻū Island.[211]
The many-colored fruit dove is one of the rarest birds that nest on Tutuila. Studies in the 1980s estimated their population size at Tutuila to be only around 80 birds.[211]Amalau Valley has been described as the best place in American Samoa to observe the many-colored fruit dove.[224]
The offshore islet ofPola Island nearVatia is a nesting site for many seabird species and an excellent area to observe seabirds.[225][224] The Pola region of Vatia andRose Atoll are the only places in American Samoa where there are breeding colonies ofred-footed boobies.[226]
Birds that depend on freshwater habitat include thePacific reef heron andPacific black duck, the Samoan Islands' only species of duck. The largest wetland areas are the pala lagoons inNuʻuuli andLeone as well as Pala Lake onAunuʻu Island.[211]
^Despite being under the sovereignty of the United States since 1900, American Samoa has not been fullyincorporated into the country for constitutional purposes.[1] See the page for theInsular Cases for more information.
^abcThe constitution specifies the seat of government atFagatogo, where thelegislature,High Court and District Court are located.[70][76][77][74] The executive office building is located in neighboringUtulei.[72][73] These two villages are located alongPago Pago Harbor, whose largest village isPago Pago. Many sources list Pago Pago as the capital, referring to the whole agglomeration around the harbor.[118][3]
^To travel to American Samoa, U.S. nationals need to show proof of existing residence or future employment in American Samoa, or a ticket for future departure from the territory.[100] However, once there, U.S. nationals may reside indefinitely and cannot be deported.[101]
^An American Samoan law of 1962 defined 14 counties.[113] The constitution of 1967, signed by delegates from these 14 counties, established 15 counties from then on, separating Fofo from Lealataua.[70] The election law was later revised accordingly.[114][115][116] However, the U.S. Census Bureau continues to list 14 counties, treating Fofo as part of Lealataua.[4]
^abcKeating, Barbara (1991). Keating, Barbara; Bolton, Barrie (eds.).The Geology of the Samoan Islands, in Geology and Offshore Mineral Resources of the Central Pacific Basin, Circum-Pacific Council for Energy and Mineral Resources Earth Science Series, Vol. 14. Springer-Verlag. pp. 128–129.ISBN0387977716.
^Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration.United States Naval Institute. Page 58. ISBN 9780870210747.
^Ryden, George Herbert.The Foreign Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa. New York: Octagon Books, 1975. (Reprint by special arrangement with Yale University Press. Originally published at New Haven: Yale University Press, 1928), p. 574. The Tripartite Convention (United States, Germany, Great Britain) was signed at Washington on December 2, 1899, with ratifications exchanged on February 16, 1900.
^Sorensen, Stan (July 12, 2006)."Historical Notes"(PDF).Tapuitea. p. 2. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on September 26, 2011. RetrievedAugust 16, 2011.
^F. J. H. Grattan (1948). "The Organisation of Samoan Society".An Introduction to Samoan Custom. Papakura: R. McMILLAN. p. 10.Archived from the original on June 30, 2022. RetrievedJune 30, 2022 – via NZETC.
^Amicus Curiae Brief of Eni F. H. Faleomavaega(PDF), November 7, 2012, archived fromthe original(PDF) on September 23, 2015, retrievedApril 26, 2014,More than a century ago, the Supreme Court held that the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment does not extend birthright citizenship to United States nationals who are born in unincorporated territories. See Downes v. Bidwell, 182 US 244, 251 (1901). The Court has reaffirmed this principle through the years, noting that individuals who are born in an unincorporated territory, though "subject to the jurisdiction of the United States," are "American nationals" who are not birthright citizens of the United States. Barber v. Gonzales, 347 U.S. 637, 639 n.1 (1954).
^Sunia, Fofō I. F. (1998).The Story of the Legislature of American Samoa: In Commemoration of the Golden Jubilee 1948–1998. Pago Pago, AS: Legislature of American Samoa. pp. 234–235.ISBN978-9829008015.
^Institute of Island Studies, University of Prince Edward Island."American Samoa"(PDF).Institute of Island Studies, UPEI.Archived(PDF) from the original on March 19, 2023. RetrievedDecember 8, 2022.
^Julia Longoria (April 10, 2019)."Americanish"(Audio Podcast with Notes).Radiolab.Archived from the original on April 30, 2019. RetrievedApril 30, 2019.
^Rauzon, Mark J. (2016).Isles of Amnesia: The History, Geography, and Restoration of America's Forgotten Pacific Islands. University of Hawaiʻi Press, Latitude 20. p. 7.ISBN978-0824846794.
^"U.S. Insular Areas, Application of the U.S. Constitution"(PDF). U.S. General Accounting Office. November 1997. p. 37. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on November 3, 2013. RetrievedApril 29, 2020.[F]ederal individual and corporate income taxes as such are not currently imposed in the insular areas.
^abcdefgGoldin, Meryl Rose (2002). Field Guide to the Samoan Archipelago: Fish, Wildlife, and Protected Areas. Bess Press.ISBN9781573061117.
^Butcher, Russell D. and Lynn P. Whitaker (1999).National Parks and Conservation Association Guide to National Parks: Pacific Region. Globe Pequot Press. p. 82.ISBN978-0762705733.
^Nichols, Wallace J. and Brad Nahill (2014).A Worldwide Travel Guide To Sea Turtles. Texas A&M University Press.ISBN978-1623491741.
^Weaver, Sigourney (2020).America's Marine Sanctuaries: A Photographic Exploration. Smithsonian. Page 202. ISBN 9781588346667.
^Haberle, Simon and Janelle Stevenson (2010).Altered Ecologies: Fire, Climate and Human Influence on Terrestrial Landscapes. ANU E Press. p. 102.ISBN978-1921666810.
^Fleming, Theodore H. and Paul A. Racey (2010).Island Bats: Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation. University of Chicago Press. p. 432.ISBN978-0226253312.
^Stanley, David (2004).Moon Handbooks South Pacific. Moon Travel Guides. p. 483.ISBN978-1566914116.
^Stanley, David (1996).South Pacific Handbook. David Stanley. p. 417.ISBN978-1566910408.
^Stanley, David (1999).Moon Handbooks Tonga-Samoa. Moon Travel Guides. p. 180.ISBN978-1566911740.
^Stanley, David (1982).South Pacific Handbook. David Stanley. p. 155.ISBN978-0960332236.
^Haberle, Simon and Janelle Stevenson (2010).Altered Ecologies: Fire, Climate and Human Influence on Terrestrial Landscapes. ANU E Press. pp. 102–103.ISBN978-1921666810.
^abWatling, Dick and Dieter R. Rinke (2001).A Guide to the Birds of Fiji and Western Polynesia, Including American Samoa, Niue, Samoa, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu and Wallis & Futuna. Environmental Consultants. p. 246.ISBN978-9829047014.
^Muse, Corey and Shirley (1982).The Birds of Birdlore of Samoa. Pioneer Press. p. 15.ISBN978-0936546056.
^Faiʻivae, Alex Godinet (2018).Ole Manuō o Tala Tuʻu Ma Fisaga o Tala Ave. Amerika Samoa Humanities Council. p. 59.ISBN978-1546229070.
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