According to theUnited States Department of Justice and theImmigration and Naturalization Service (INS), an Amerasian is: "[A]n alien who was born inKorea,Kampuchea,Laos,Thailand orVietnam after December 31, 1950 and before October 22, 1982 and was fathered by a U.S. citizen."[6] The Amerasian Foundation (AF) and Amerasian Family Finder (AFF) define an Amerasian as "Any person who was fathered by a citizen of the United States (an American serviceman, Americanexpatriate or U.S. Government Employee (Regular or Contract)) and whose mother is or was, an Asian National."[7]
The term is commonly applied tohalfJapanese children fathered by a U.S. serviceman based in Japan, as well as halfKorean children fathered by veterans of theKorean War or stationary soldiers in South Korea. The term is also applied to children ofFilipinos and American rulers during theU.S. colonial period of the Philippines (still used until today) and children ofThais and U.S. soldiers duringWorld War II and theVietnam War. The U.S. had bases in Thailand during the Vietnam War.
Amerasian should not be interpreted as a fixed racial term relating to a specific category of multiracial groups (such asMestizo,Mulatto, Eurasian orAfro-Asians). The racial strain of the American parent of one Amerasian may be different from that of another Amerasian; it may beWhite,Black,Hispanic or evenAsians in general.[a][10] In the latter case, it is conceivable that the Amerasian could be fathered by a person who shares the same racial stock, but not necessarily the same nationality.
In certain cases, the term could also apply to the progency of American females, who engaged in professions such as military nursing for East and Southeast Asian males.[11] Mixed-race children, whatever the occupational background or prestige of their parents, have sufferedsocial stigma. With genetic relation to U.S. soldiers, Amerasians have faced additional exclusion by perceived association to being military enemies of East and Southeast Asian countries.[12][13] This stigma extended to the mothers of Amerasians, majority of whom were Asian, causing many of the Asian mothers to abandon their Amerasian children.[14][13] The abandonment of both parents led to a large proportion of orphaned Amerasians.[14][13]
The Amerasian Immigration Act included Amerasians whose fathers were U.S. citizens and whose mothers were nationals of Kampuchea (Cambodia).[15] As many as 10,000 Cambodians of mixed Amerasian ancestry may have been fathered by US servicemen.[16]
According to one estimate, around 5,000 to 10,000 Amerasian babies had been born in Japan from 1945 to 1952.[17] Data from the Japanese Welfare Ministry from July 1952, on the other hand, revealed that only 5,013 Japanese Amerasian children were born in all of Japan. Masami Takada from the Welfare Ministry put an exaggerated estimate of 150,000 – 200,000. Another investigation by the Welfare Ministry was conducted again in August 1953, this time them revising the number to reveal that only 3,490 half-castes[tone] of American fathers and Japanese mothers had been born during the 7 years of American occupation of Japan, which lasted from 1945 – 1952.[18] Some of the children were abandoned and raised in orphanages such as theElizabeth Saunders Home inOiso, Japan.
The actual number of Japanese Amerasians is unknown. Officially, the number of 10,000 Amerasians in Japan would be an upper limit. Some contemporary writers had however reported rumors of 200,000 while actual numbers had been found to be 5,000, possibly 10,000, no more than 20,000 allowing for underestimates. Of those fathered by American soldiers. Their presumed "colors" were 86.1% "white," 11.5% "black" and 2.5% "unknown."[19]
InOkinawa, The Amerasian School of Okinawa was formed to educate children of two different cultures. The school population includes Japanese Amerasians.[20][21]
The Amerasian Immigration Act included Amerasians whose fathers were U.S. citizens and whose mothers were nationals ofLaos.[22] The number of Laotian Amerasians is currently unknown.
Since 1898, when the United Statesannexed the Philippines from Spain, there were as many as 21 U.S. bases and 100,000 U.S. military personnel stationed there. The bases closed in 1992 leaving behind thousands of Amerasian children.[23] There are an estimated 52,000[24] Amerasians in the Philippines. According to an academic research paper presented in the U.S. (in 2012) by a Philippines Amerasian college research study unit, the number could be a lot more, possibly reaching 250,000, this is due the fact almost all generations of Amerasians intermarried with other Amerasians and Filipino natives.[25][26] The newer Amerasians from the United States would add to the already older settlement of peoples from other countries in the Americas that happened when the Philippines was under Spanish rule.[27] The Philippines once received immigrants from Spanish-colonized Panama, Peru,[28] and Mexico;[29]: Chpt. 6 which are all countries in the Americas.
Unlike their counterparts in other countries, American-Asians or Amerasians in the Philippines remain impoverished and neglected. A study by the University of the Philippines' Center for Women Studies found that many Amerasians have experienced some form of abuse and/ordomestic violence. The findings cited cases of racial, gender and class discrimination that Amerasian children and youth suffer from strangers, peers, classmates and teachers. The study also said black Amerasians seem to suffer more from racial and class discrimination than their white-descended counterparts.[30]
Two-thirds of Amerasian children are raised by single mothers, others by relatives and non-relatives. 6% live on their own or in institutions, and 90% were born out of wedlock.[23] It was reported in 1993 that prostitutes are increasingly Amerasian (especially black amerasian females), and frequently children of prostitutes who are caught in a cycle that transcends generations.[30]
In 1982, the U.S. passed theAmerasian Immigration Act, givingpreferential immigration status to Amerasian children born during theVietnam Conflict.[31] The act did not apply to Amerasians born in the Philippines. They can become United States citizens only if claimed by their fathers; most fathers fail to do so.[31] To become citizens of the United States, Filipino Amerasians must be able to show proof of parentage by a U.S. citizen before they turn eighteen years old; most are unable to do so before that cut off age.[32]
A class-action suit was filed in 1993 on their behalf in the International Court of Complaints in Washington, DC, to establish Filipino American children's rights to assistance.[32] The court denied the claim, ruling that the children were born to unmarried women who provided sexual services to U.S. service personnel in thePhilippines and who were therefore engaged in illicit acts ofprostitution.[32] Such illegal activity could not be the basis for any legal claim.[33]
In 2012, the number of Amerasians descended from American servicemen in the Philippines or “G.I. babies” was estimated to be around 250,000.[34]
Insooni is a singer who is of mixed African-American and Korean parentage.
Since theKorean War, there has been a significant population of Amerasians inSouth Korea. Many Amerasians were born into "Camptowns" which were established by the South Korean government. The women in these Camptowns were affected by the post-war poverty and turned to prostitution with American soldiers. This perpetuated the stereotype that children born in Camptowns were mothered by prostitutes. The South Korean government never viewedKorean Amerasians as Korean citizens but encouraged the foreign adoption of mixed South Korean babies. In 1953 the United States Congress passed theRefugee Relief Act, which allowed 4000 Amerasians to emigrate to the US for adoption.[35] This group became commonly known as Korean Adoptees. They were part of theInternational adoption of South Korean children that made up roughly 160,000 adoptees.
US soldiers fathered children inTaiwan at the end of World War II. Today there are an estimated 1,000 Taiwanese Amerasians.[37] Over 200,000 American soldiers in Korea and Vietnam visited Taiwan forrest and relaxation between 1950 and 1975.[38]
InThailand, Amerasian children are dubbed asLuk khrueng or half children in theThai language. These Amerasians were fathered by US soldiers who took part in the Vietnam War.[39] At the height of the Vietnam War, 50,000 GIs were based in Thailand.[40] The Pearl S. Buck Foundation estimated around 5,000-8,000 Thai Amerasians. Some migrated to the United States under the 1982 Amerasian Immigration Act. An unknown number were left behind.[41] "I had trouble at school. I was teased and bullied a lot because of my skin color," says entertainer Morris Kple Roberts, who had an African American father and a Thai mother.[42]
US veteran, Gene Ponce, helps American fathers find their Thai Amerasian children. He has recently used popularDNA services, such asAncestry.com to help match Amerasians with their relatives in the US.[43][44]
The exact number of Amerasians in Vietnam is not known. The U.S. soldiers stationed in Vietnam had relationships with local women, many of whom had origins in nightclubs, brothels and pubs. The American Embassy once reported there were fewer than 1,000 Amerasians. A report by the South Vietnamese Senate Subcommittee suggested there are 15,000 to 20,000 children of mixed European American and Vietnamese ancestry, but this figure was considered low.[45] Congress estimated 20,000 to 30,000 Amerasians by 1975 lived in Vietnam.[46] According toAmerasians Without Borders, they estimated about 25,000 to 30,000 Vietnamese Amerasians were born from American first participation in Vietnam in 1962 and lasted until 1975.[47] Although during theOperation Babylift it was estimated at 23,000.[48] In April 1975, Operation Babylift was initiated in South Vietnam to relocate Vietnamese children, many orphans and those of mixed American-Vietnamese parentage (mostly Vietnamese mothers and American serviceman fathers), to the United States and find American families who would take them in. The crash of the first flight ofOperation Babylift led to the death of 138 people, 78 of which were children. During the operation, they estimated over 3,000 Amerasians were evacuated from South Vietnam; however, more than 20,000 Amerasians remained.[49]
In July 1979, theUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) created theOrderly Departure Program in order to mitigate safer travel conditions for Vietnamese refugees to various nations after the Vietnam War. However, since its inception to mid 1982, only 23 Amerasians successfully emigrated under the Orderly Departure Program. By October 1982, there was more hope for Amerasian emigration as the largest group of 11 Amerasian children, aged seven to fifteen, departed from Vietnam to immigrate to the U.S.[50][51]
In 1982, the U.S. Congress passed theAmerasian Immigration Act in an attempt to grant Amerasian immigration to the U.S. However, theAmerasian Immigration Act provided great emigration difficulty for many Vietnamese Amerasians, due to a lack of diplomatic relations between the U.S. and the Vietnamese government. This was due to a clause in theAmerasian Immigration Act that required documentation of the fathers in the U.S. in order for the Vietnamese Amerasians to acquire a visa. However, around 500 Amerasians were still able to safely immigrate to the U.S. between 1982 and 1983 due to Hanoi's cooperating with the U.S.[52] In 1988, U.S. Congress passed theAmerican Homecoming Act, aiming to grant citizenship to Vietnamese Amerasians born between 1962 and 1975. By 1994, more than 75,000 Amerasians and their family from Vietnam immigrated to the U.S.[53] The American Homecoming act eventually led to 23,000 Amerasians and 67,000 of their relatives immigrating to the U.S. For the Vietnamese Amerasians, this meant that their migration to the U.S. occurred as teenagers, leading to struggles in the resettlement process. A study in 1994 found that 22% of Amerasian men and 18% of Amerasian women residing in the U.S. reported physical or sexual abuse.[54] By 2018, at least 400 Amerasians still currently reside Vietnam through DNA testing of 500 people by the nonprofit organization Amerasians Without Borders.[53]
Up to the 2000s, many Vietnamese Amerasians were still not reunited with their fathers. Some Amerasians still resided in Vietnam unable to obtain the necessary documents to emigrate to the US. Organizations such as the Amerasian Child Find Network, run by Clint Haines and AAHope Foundation, run by Jonathan Tinquist, helped American fathers reunite with their Amerasian children. Both are Vietnam Vets.[55][56][57][58][59]
Other organizations that helped with Amerasian, Adoptee and family searches included the Adopted Vietnamese International (AVI) (Indigo Willing) and Operation Reunite (Trista Goldberg).[60][61] The only current active US organization seeking to reunite Amerasians isAmerasian Without Borders (AWB) run by Jimmy Miller, a Vietnamese Amerasian based in the US.[62][63]
Johnathon Franklin Freeman was a film producer, actor and production manager[64] born inSaigon, Vietnam to a Vietnamese mother and an American serviceman. His mother sent Johnathan and his sister to an orphanage where they were eventually sent to the US as part ofOperation Babylift. He was married toKim Fields from 1995 to 2001. In February 2007, the Amerasian Family Finder cooperating with the Amerasian Foundation found his mother in Saigon who he reunited in May 2007.[65] He died on August 21, 2020.[66]
Phi Nhung -Phạm Phi Nhung was born on 10 April 1970[67][68] inPleiku, Vietnam to a Vietnamese mother and an American serviceman father.[69][70] She was a singer who specialized in Dan Ca and Tru Tinh music. On 26 August 2021 she was hospitalized toCho Ray Hospital after contractingCOVID-19.[71] About a month later, her health took a turn for the worse.[72][73] Phi Nhung died on 28 September 2021 due to COVID-19 complications.[74]
Thanh Hà -Trương Minh Hà was born inĐà Nẵng, Vietnam to a Vietnamese mother and an American serviceman father of German origin. She is aVietnamese American singer known under the stage name asThanh Hà.[75]
The 1957 filmSayonara features a Japanese woman who falls in love with a white serviceman and they talk about having mixed children together.
In theanime andmanga franchiseGreat Mazinger ("Guretto Majinga" in Japanese), the character of Jun Honoo is the daughter of a Japanese woman and a U.S. African American serviceman. As such, she had to endure stigma and racism during her youth due to her status as "hafu" and her darker skin compared to Amerasians born from white parents.
In the 1972 TV seriesM*A*S*H, episode 15 of season 8, "Yessir, That's Our Baby", Hawkeye and BJ attempt to send an Amerasian baby to the United States, facing difficulty at every step of the way. With no other viable solution, they act on Father Mulcahy's advice and take the baby to a monastery in the dead of night to provide her with safety and care.
"Straight to Hell", a song by rock music group the Clash, considers the plight of Vietnam War Amerasians.
The 1977 movieGreen Eyes starred Paul Winfield as a Vietnam War veteran who returns to Vietnam in search of the son he fathered with a Vietnamese woman.
In the 1984 TV seriesHighway to Heaven, episode 11 of season 1, titled "Dust Child," the two lead characters Jonathan, played byMichael Landon and Mark, played byVictor French, help an Amerasian girl facing racial prejudice when she goes to live with her father's family in the United States.
In the 1988 TV seriesIn the Heat of the Night, episode 9 of season 3, titled "My Name is Hank," an Amerasian teenager named Hank believes that he was fathered by a deceased police officer once employed by the Sparta, Mississippi police department.
The Oscar-nominated 1995 filmDust of Life tells the story of Son, a boy with a Vietnamese mother and African American father, who is interned in aRe-education camp.
In the 1997 animated television sitcomKing of the Hill, Hank discovers that he has an Amerasian brother living in Japan.
In the 1999 AmericanVietnamese language filmThree Seasons, James Hager, played byHarvey Keitel, searches for his Vietnamese Amerasian daughter in hopes of "coming to peace with this place".
The 2001 novelThe Unwanted byKien Nguyen is a memoir about the author's experience growing up as an Amerasian in Vietnam until he emigrates to the United States at age eighteen.
Daughter from Đà Nẵng is a 2002 award-winning documentary film about an Amerasian woman who returns to visit her biological family inĐà Nẵng, Vietnam after 22 years of separation and living in the United States.
The musicalMiss Saigon focuses on a young Vietnamese woman who falls in love with an American GI and later has his child after the Fall of Saigon.
The 2004 filmThe Beautiful Country is about an Amerasian boy (played by Damien Nguyen) who leaves his nativeVietnam to find his father.
In 2007 atTED, PhotographerRick Smolan'sThe Story of a Girl tells the unforgettable story of a young Amerasian girl, a fateful photograph and an adoption saga with a twist.
The 2010 documentaryLeft by the Ship which aired on PBS Independent Lens in May 2012, follows the lives of four modern Filipino Amerasians for two years, showing the struggle to overcome the stigma related to their birth.
The 2014 movieNoble, tells the true life story of Christina Noble, who overcomes the harsh difficulties of her childhood in Ireland to find her calling by helping the Bụi Dời (Vietnamese Amerasians) on the streets of Ho Chi Minh City.[78]
In the 2017 book,The Rebirth of Hope: My Journey from Vietnam War Child to American Citizen, by Sau Le Hudecek, the author recalls the trials she endured growing up in post-war Vietnam as a daughter of an American GI.
In 2018,Dateline NBC aired Father's Day, where a Vietnamese Amerasian woman takes a DNA test hoping to learn more about her family tree.[79]
^The term "Asian" used according to contemporary American parlance and for U.S. government census purposes describesAsian people § United States as arace. Furthermore, the term "Asian" in the United States is often synonymous with people ofEast Asian ancestry.[8][9] Ethno-racial groups from other parts of Continental Asia or of Continental Asian origin are not considered "Asian" in American terms.
^abcThe dust of life: America's children abandoned in Vietnam. Seattle : University of Washington Press. 1999.ISBN0295741066.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
^Mixed Marriage...Interreligious, Interracial, InterethnicBy Dr. Robert H. Schram
^Stephanie Mawson, 'Between Loyalty and Disobedience: The Limits of Spanish Domination in the Seventeenth Century Pacific' (Univ. of Sydney M.Phil. thesis, 2014), appendix 3.
Gage, Sue-Je Lee (2007). "The Amerasian Problem: Blood, Duty, and Race".International Relations.21 (1). Sage journals:86–102.doi:10.1177/0047117807073769.S2CID144367370..
Amerasian Child Find Network at theWayback Machine (archived January 4, 2006). ACFN was formed by Clint Haines, A Vietnam veteran who was searching for his Amerasian child.
Amerasian Foundation at theWayback Machine (archived March 6, 2016). AF was formed by Kevin Miller Jr., a Japanese Amerasian and US Marine Corps veteran.
The Halfie Project. A podcast by Becky White (Korean / American) exploring mixed Korean identity.
War and Children Identity Project at theWayback Machine (archived October 12, 2004). This organization worked with other organizations that served "Children of War" fathered by foreign soldiers.
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