Find spots of epigraphic inscriptions (red dots) indicating local control by the Alchon Huns in India between 500-530 CE,[2] with neighbouring polities,[3] and territorial extent of the Alchon Huns (brown).[4]
TheAlchon Huns, (Bactrian:αλχον(ν)οAlkhon(n)o orαλχαν(ν)οAlkhan(n)o) also known as theAlkhan,Alchono,Alxon,Alkhon,Alakhana, andWalxon, were a nomadic people who established states inCentral Asia andSouth Asia during the 4th and 6th centuries CE.[1] They were first mentioned as being located inParopamisus, and later expanded south-east, into thePunjab andCentral India, as far asEran andKausambi. The Alchon invasion of theIndian subcontinent eradicated theKidarite Huns who had preceded them by about a century, and contributed to the fall of theGupta Empire, in a sense bringing an end toClassical India.[9][5]
The invasion of India by theHuna peoples follows invasions of the subcontinent in the preceding centuries by the Yavana (Indo-Greeks), the Saka (Indo-Scythians), the Pahlava (Indo-Parthians), and the Kushana (Yuezhi). The Alchon Empire was the second of four major Huna states established in Central and South Asia. The Alchon were preceded by theKidarites and succeeded by theHephthalites inBactria and theNezak Huns in theHindu Kush. The names of the Alchon kings are known from their extensive coinage, Buddhist accounts, and a number of commemorative inscriptions throughout theIndian subcontinent.
The Alchons have long been considered as a part or a sub-division of theHephthalites, or as their eastern branch, but now tend to be considered as a separate entity.[1][10][11]
The etymology of "Alchon" is disputed. It is only attested on the script of their coins and seals, where it appears asalkhon(n)o oralkhan(n)o in Bactrian script orlakhāna in Sanskrit.[12] Frantz Grenet, pointing to theMiddle Persian apocalyptic bookZand-i Wahman yasn, argued that a name attested there,Karmīr Xyōn ("red Chionites") could represent a translation ofAlkhonno, with the first element,al being a Turkic word for red and the second element representing the ethnic name "Hun".[13] An older suggestion, by H. Humbach, also connects the second element to "Hun", but argues thatal- comes from the ethnic nameAlan.[14]
Hans Bakker argues that the second spelling-khan- makes it unlikely that the term contains the ethnic name "Hun", as theBactrian word for "Hun" is*uono (pluraluonono).[17] Likewise, Khodadad Rezakhani argues that the name Alkhana is attested for a ruler in WesternKashmir, meaning it was probably initially a personal name.[18] Bakker instead argues that the ethnic name has been used as a personal name.[19] Furthermore, the “Red Huns” theory requires that the Alchon spoke a Turkic language, which is highly disputed.[18] Agustí Alemanny similarly disputes Humbach's etymology as relying on insufficient evidence of an Alan-Hun ethnic group.[20]
Because the name "Alchon" is only attested on coins and seals, there is some debate about whether the Alchon were a separate entity from theHephthalites.[21] To contemporaneous observers in India, the Alchon were one of theHūṇa peoples (or Hunas).[22][23] A seal fromKausambi associated withToramana, bears the titleHūnarāja ("Huna King"),[24] although the authenticity of this seal is questionable.[25] Toramana is also described as aHuna (Hūṇā) in theRīsthal inscription.[26][27][28]
The Hunas appear to have been the peoples known in contemporaneous Iranian sources asXwn,Xiyon and similar names, which were later Romanised asXionites or Chionites. The Hunas are often linked to theHuns that invaded Europe from Central Asia during the same period. Consequently, the word Hun has three slightly different meanings, depending on the context in which it is used: 1) the Huns of Europe; 2) groups associated with theHuna people who invaded northern India; 3) a vague term for Hun-like people. The Alchon have also been labelled "Huns", with essentially the second meaning, as well as elements of the third.[29][30]
The Alchons are generally recognized by their elongated skull, a result ofartificial skull deformation, which may have represented their "corporate identity". The elongated skulls appear clearly in most of the portraits of rulers in the coinage of the Alkhon Huns, and most visibly on the coinage ofKhingila. These elongated skulls, which they obviously displayed with pride, distinguished them from other peoples, such as their predecessors theKidarites. On their coins, the spectacular skulls came to replace theSasanian-type crowns which had been current in the coinage of the region. This practice is also known among other peoples of the steppes, particularly theHuns, and as far as Europe, where it was introduced by the Huns themselves.[31][32]
In another ethnic custom, the Alchons were represented beardless, often wearing amoustache, in clear contrast with theSasanian Empire prototype which was generally bearded.[33]
The emblematic look of the Alchons seems to have become rather fashionable in the area, as shown by the depiction of the Iranian heroRostam, mythical king ofZabulistan, with an elongated skull inhis 7th century CE mural atPanjikent.[34][35][36]
Another way for the Alchon Huns to affirm their identity and to differentiate themselves from their predecessors theKidarites, was the use of a specific symbol, ortamgha, which regularly appears on their coinage and seals.[31]
The Alkhons are initially recorded in the area ofBactria circa 370 CE, from where they confronted theSasanian Empire to the west and theKidarites to the southeast.
Early confrontations between theSasanian Empire ofShapur II with the nomadic hordes from Central Asia called the "Chionites" were described byAmmianus Marcellinus: he reports that in 356 CE, Shapur II was taking his winter quarters on his eastern borders, "repelling the hostilities of the bordering tribes" of theChionites and the Euseni ("Euseni" is usually amended to "Cuseni", meaning theKushans),[41][42] finally making a treaty of alliance with the Chionites and the Gelani, "the most warlike and indefatigable of all tribes", in 358 CE.[43] After concluding this alliance, theChionites (probably of theKidarites tribe)[44] under their KingGrumbates accompanied Shapur II in the war against the Romans, especially at thesiege of Amida in 359 CE. Victories of the Xionites during their campaigns in the EasternCaspian lands were also witnessed and described byAmmianus Marcellinus.[45]
The Alchon Huns occupied Bactria circa 370 CE, chasing the Kidarites in the direction of India, and started minting coins in the style of Shapur II but bearing their name "Alchono".[citation needed]
Around 380-385 CE, the Alchons emerged inKapisa, taking over Kabulistan from theSassanian Persians, while at the same time theKidarites (Red Huns) ruled inGandhara.[46] The Alchons are known to have reused the mint and the coin dies ofShapur II south of the Hindu Kush, again simply adding their name "Alchono" to Sasanian coinage.[47] The Alchon Huns are sometimes said to have taken control ofKabul in 388.[46]
The Alchon Huns initially issued anonymous coins based onSasanian designs.[38] Several types of these coins are known, usually minted inBactria, using Sasanian coinage designs with busts imitating Sasanian kingsShapur II (r.309 to 379 CE) andShapur III (r.383 to 388 CE), adding the AlchonTamgha and the name "Alchono" (αλχοννο) inBactrian script (a slight adaptation of theGreek script which had been introduced in the region by theGreco-Bactrians in the 3rd century BCE) on the obverse, and with attendants to afire altar, a standard Sasanian design, on the reverse.[48][49] It is thought the Alchons took over the Sasanian mints in Kabulistan after 385 CE, reusing dies ofShapur II andShapur III, to which they added the name "Alchono".[50]
Portrait of an older KingKhingila, founder of the Alchon Huns, on one of his coins, c. 430 – 490 CE.
Around 430 KingKhingila, the most notable Alchon ruler, and the first one to be named and represented on his coins with the legend "χιγγιλο" (Chiggilo) inBactrian, emerged and took control of the routes across theHindu Kush from the Kidarites.[46][1] Coins of the Alchons rulers Khingila andMehama were found at the Buddhist monastery ofMes Aynak, southeast ofKabul, confirming the Alchon presence in this area around 450-500 CE.[51] Khingila seems to have been a contemporary of theSassanian rulerBahram V.[1] As the Alchons took control, diplomatic missions were established in 457 withChina.[52]: 162 Khingila, under the nameShengil, was called "King of India" in theShahnameh ofFerdowsi.[11]
Alchon rulerMehama (r.461-493) was elevated to the position of Governor forSasanian EmperorPeroz I (r. 459–484), and described himself as "King of the people ofKadag and governor of the famous and prosperous King of Kings Peroz" ina 462-463 letter.[53] He allied with Peroz I in his victory over theKidarites in 466 CE, and may also have helped him take the throne against his brotherHormizd III. But he was later able to wrestle autonomy or even independence.[54]
Between 460 and 470 CE, the Alchons took overGandhara and thePunjab which also had remained under the control of theKidarites, while theGupta Empire remained further east.[55][30] The Alkhon Huns may simply have filled the power vacuum created by the decline of the Kidarites, following their defeat in India against theGupta Empire ofSkandagupta in 455 CE,[19] and their subsequent defeat in 467 CE against theSasanian Empire ofPeroz I, withHephthalite and Alchon aid underMehama, which put an end to Kidarite rule inTransoxiana once and for all.[56]
The numismatic evidence as well as the so-called "Hephthalite bowl" fromGandhara, now in theBritish Museum, suggests a period of peaceful coexistence between the Kidarites and the Alchons, as it features twoKidarite noble hunters wearing their characteristic crowns, together with two Alchon hunters and one of the Alchons inside a medallion.[57] At one point, the Kidarites withdrew from Gandhara, and the Alchons took over their mints from the time ofKhingila.[57]
The Alchons apparently undertook the mass destruction of Buddhist monasteries andstupas atTaxila, a high center of learning, which never recovered from the destruction.[60] Virtually all of the Alchon coins found in the area ofTaxila were found in the ruins of burned down monasteries, where apparently some of the invaders died alongside local defenders during the wave of destructions.[60] It is thought that theKanishka stupa, one of the most famous and tallest buildings in antiquity, was destroyed by them during their invasion of the area in the 460s CE. TheMankiala stupa was also vandalized during their invasions.[61]
The rest of the 5th century marks a period of territorial expansion and eponymous kings, several of which appear to have overlapped and ruled jointly.[62][Note 1] The Alchon Huns invaded parts of northwestern India from the second half of the 5th century.[63] According to theBhitari pillar inscription, the Gupta rulerSkandagupta already confronted and defeated an unnamed Huna rulerc. 456-457 CE.[63]
From circa 480 CE, there are also suggestion of Hunnic occupation ofSindh, betweenMultan and the mouth of theIndus River, as the localSasanian coinage of Sindh starts to incorporate sun symbols or a Hunnictamgha to the design.[64] These little-known coins are usually described as the result of the invasions of the "Hephthalites".[64] The quality of the coins also becomes very much degraded by that time, and the actual gold content becomes quite low compared to the previous Sasanian-style coinage.[65]
The Hūṇas were precisely ruling the area ofMalwa, at the doorstep of theWestern Deccan, at the time the famousAjanta Caves were made by rulerHarisena of theVakataka Empire.[66][67] Through their control of vast areas of northwestern India, the Huns may actually have acted as a cultural bridge between the area ofGandhara and the Western Deccan, at the time when the Ajanta orPitalkhora caves were being decorated with designs of Gandharan inspiration, such as Buddhas dressed in robes with abundant folds.[68]
The monastery of Ghoshitarama inKausambi was probably destroyed by the Alchon Huns under Toramana.[24]
"Hūna Rāja" Toramana seal impression, Kausambi[69]
In theFirst Hunnic War (496–515),[70] the Alchon reached their maximum territorial extent, with KingToramana pushing deep into Indian territory, reachingGujarat andMadhya Pradesh inCentral India, and ultimately contributing to the downfall of theGupta Empire.[52]: 162 To the south, theSanjeli inscriptions indicate that Toramana penetrated at least as far as northernGujarat, and possibly to the port ofBharukaccha.[71] To the east, far intoCentral India, the city ofKausambi, where seals with Toramana's name were found, was probably sacked by the Alkhons in 497–500, before they moved to occupyMalwa.[70][72][73]: 70 [74] In particular, it is thought that the monastery of Ghoshitarama in Kausambi was destroyed by Toramana, as several of his seals were found there, one of them bearing the nameToramana impressed over the official seal of the monastery, and the other bearing the titleHūnarāja ("King of the Huns"), together with debris and arrowheads.[24] Another seal, this time by Mihirakula, is reported from Kausambi.[24] These territories may have been taken from Gupta EmperorBudhagupta.[73]: 79 Alternatively, they may have been captured during the rule of his successorNarasimhagupta.[75]
A decisive battle occurred inMalwa, where a local Gupta ruler, probably a governor, namedBhanugupta was in charge. In theBhanuguptaEran inscription, this local ruler reports that his army participated in a great battle in 510 CE atEran, where it suffered severe casualties.[75] Bhanugupta was probably vanquished by Toramana at this battle, so that the western Gupta province ofMalwa fell into the hands of the Hunas.[75]
According to a 6th-century CE Buddhist work, theManjusri-mula-kalpa, Bhanugupta lost Malwa to the "Shudra"Toramana, who continued his conquest toMagadha, forcingNarasimhagupta Baladitya to make a retreat toBengal. Toramana "possessed of great prowess and armies" then conquered the city ofTirtha in theGauda country (modernBengal).[77][Note 2] Toramana is said to have crowned a new king inBenares, named Prakataditya, who is also presented as a son of Narasimha Gupta.[75]
A rare gold coin ofToramana in the style of the Guptas. The obverse legend reads: "The lord of the Earth, Toramana, having conquered the Earth, wins Heaven".[80][81]
Having conquered the territory of Malwa from the Guptas, Toramana was mentioned in a famous inscription inEran, confirming his rule on the region.[75] TheEran boar inscription of Toramana (inEran, Malwa, 540 km south ofNew Delhi, state ofMadhya Pradesh) of his first regnal year indicates that easternMalwa was included in his dominion. The inscription is written under the neck of the boar, in 8 lines ofSanskrit in theBrahmi script. The first line of the inscription, in which Toramana is introduced asMahararajadhidaja (The Great King of Kings),[73]: 79 reads:
In year one of the reign of the King of Kings Sri-Toramana, who rules the world with splendor and radiance...
The fact that the Alchon Huns issued gold coins, such as the Toramana issue, in addition to their silver and copper coins, suggest that their empire in India was quite rich and powerful.[82]
Toramana was finally defeated by local Indian rulers. The local rulerBhanugupta is sometimes credited with vanquishing Toramana, as his 510 CE inscription inEran, recording his participation in "a great battle", is vague enough to allow for such an interpretation. The "great battle" in which Bhanagupta participated is not detailed, and it is impossible to know what it was, or which way it ended, and interpretations vary.[83][84][85]Mookerji and others consider, in view of the inscription as well as theManjusri-mula-kalpa, that Bhanugupta was, on the contrary, vanquished by Toramana at the 510 CE Eran battle, so that the western Gupta province ofMalwa fell into the hands of the Hunas at that point,[75] so that Toramana could be mentioned in theEran boar inscription, as the ruler of the region.[75]
Toramana was finally vanquished with certainty by an Indian ruler of theAulikara dynasty ofMalwa, after nearly 20 years in India. According to theRīsthal stone-slab inscription, discovered in 1983, KingPrakashadharma defeated Toramana in 515 CE.[70][71][86] The First Hunnic War thus ended with a Hunnic defeat, and Hunnic troops apparently retreated to the area ofPunjab.[70] TheManjusri-mula-kalpa simply states that Toramana died inBenares as he was returning westward from his battles with Narasimhagupta.[75]
The Second Hunnic War started in 520, when the Alchon kingMihirakula, son of Toramana, is recorded in his military encampment on the borders of theJhelum by Chinese monkSong Yun. At the head of the Alchon, Mihirakula is then recorded inGwalior,Central India as "Lord of the Earth" in theGwalior inscription of Mihirakula.[70] According to some accounts, Mihirakula invaded India as far as the Gupta capitalPataliputra, which was sacked and left in ruins.[87][73]: 64
There was a king called Mo-hi-lo-kiu-lo (Mihirakula), who established his authority in this town (Sagala) and ruled over India. He was of quick talent, and naturally brave. He subdued all the neighbouring provinces without exception.
— Xuanzang "The Record of the Western Regions", 7th century CE[88]
The destructions of Mihirakula are also recorded in theRajatarangini:[11]
Mihirakula, a man of violent acts and resemblingKāla (Death) ruled in the land which was overrun by hordes ofMlecchas... the people knew his approach by noticing the vultures, crows, and other [birds], which were flying ahead to feed on those who were being slain within his army's [reach]
Finally however, Mihirakula was defeated in 528 by an alliance of Indian principalities led byYasodharman, theAulikara king of Malwa, in theBattle of Sondani inCentral India, which resulted in the loss of Alchon possessions in the Punjab and north India by 542. TheSondani inscription inSondani, nearMandsaur, records the submission by force of the Hunas, and claims that Yasodharman had rescued the earth from rude and cruel kings,[89][Note 3] and that he "had bent the head of Mihirakula".[70] In a part of the Sondani inscriptionYasodharman thus praises himself for having defeated kingMihirakula:[78]
He (Yasodharman) to whose two feet respect was paid, with complimentary presents of the flowers from the lock of hair on the top of (his) head, by even that (famous) kingMihirakula, whose forehead was pained through being bent low down by the strength of (his) arm in (the act of compelling) obeisance
TheGupta Empire emperorNarasimhagupta is also credited in helping repulse Mihirakula, after the latter had conquered most of India, according to the reports of Chinese monkXuanzang.[96][97] In a fanciful account, Xuanzang, who wrote a century later in 630 CE, reported that Mihirakula had conquered all India except for an island where the king ofMagadha named Baladitya (who could be Gupta rulerNarasimhagupta Baladitya) took refuge, but that was finally captured by the Indian king. He later spared Mihirakula's life on the intercession of his mother, as she perceived the Hun ruler "as a man of remarkable beauty and vast wisdom".[97] Mihirakula is then said to have returned toKashmir to retake the throne.[98][52]: 168 This ended the Second Hunnic War inc. 534, after an occupation which lasted nearly 15 years.[70]
"The son of that king (Kumaragupta) was the illustriousDâmôdaragupta, by whom (his) enemies were slain, just like the demons by (the god)Dâmôdara. Breaking up the proudly stepping array of mighty elephants, belonging to the Maukhari, which had thrown aloft in battle the troops of the Hûnas (in order to trample them to death), he became unconscious (and expired in the fight)."
Coinage ofSri Pravarasena, successor of Mihirakula, and supposed founder ofSrinagar.Obverse: Standing king with two figured seated below. Name "Pravarasena".Reverse: goddess seated on a lion. Legend "Kidāra". Circa 6th-early 7th century CE
The Alchon Huns resettled in the area ofGandhara andKashmir in northwesternIndia under the rule ofSri Pravarasena (c.530-590 CE), thought to be the son of Toramana.[102] His reign probably lasted about 60 years from circa 530 CE.[102][103] According toKalhana's 12th century textRajatarangini, Pravarasena established a new capital named Pravarapura (also known as Pravarasena-pura). Based on topographical details, Pravarapura appears to be same as the modern city ofSrinagar.[104][102] He also built a temple named "Pravaresha".[102][103]
Several rulers with Alchon names appear inKalhana'sRajatarangini.[108] Although the chronology of theRajatarangini is largely deficient, several of the names of these rulers, especially those belonging to the so-calledGonanda dynasty (II), have been confirmed by coin finds in Kashmir and dated to the 7th century CE. They were "very likely" descendants of the Alchon Huns in the Kashmir area.[109]
Retreat to Kabulistan and displacement of the Nezak Huns
Around the end of the 6th century CE, the Alchons withdrew toKashmir and, pulling back fromPunjab andGandhara, moved west across theKhyber Pass where they resettled inKabulistan under the leadership ofToramana II.[110] There, their coinage suggests that they merged with theNezak – as coins in Nezak style now bear the Alchontamga mark.[111][78]
Alchon-Nezak "crossover coinage", 580–680. Nezak-style bust on the obverse, andAlchontamga within double border on the reverse.[111]
During the 7th century, continued military encounters are reported between the Hunas and the northern Indian states which followed the disappearance of the Gupta Empire. For example,Prabhakaravardhana, theVardhana dynasty king ofThanesar in northern India and father ofHarsha, is reported to have been "A lion to theHuna deer, a burning fever to the king of theIndus land".[112]: 253
The Alchons in India declined rapidly around the same time that theHephthalites, a related group to the north, were defeated by an alliance between the Sassanians and theWestern Turkic Kaghanate in 557–565 CE.[113]: 187 The areas ofKhuttal andKapisa-Gandhara had remained independent kingdoms under the Alchon Huns, under kings such asNarendra, but in 625 CE they were taken over by the expandingWestern Turks when they established theYabghus of Tokharistan.[114] Eventually, the Nezak-Alchons were replaced by theTurk Shahi dynasty around 665 CE.[113]: 187
Alchon devotee,Butkara I (construction phase 4), 5th century CE.[115]
The four Alchon kingsKhingila,Toramana, Javukha, andMehama are mentioned as donors to a Buddhist stupa in theTalagan copper scroll inscription dated to 492 or 493 CE, that is, at a time before the Hunnic wars in India started. This corresponds to a time when the Alchons had recently taken control ofTaxila (around 460 CE), at the center of the Buddhist regions of northwestern India.[115] Numerous Alchon coins were found in the dedication compartment of the "Tope Kalān" stupa inHadda.[116]
Mural with paintings of probable Alchon devotees can be seen in the Buddhist complex of theButkara Stupa (Butkara I, construction phase 4). Dated to the 5th century CE, they suggest that the Alchon Huns may have been participants to the local Buddhist culture.[117]
Later, however, the attitude of the Alchons towards Buddhism is reported to have been negative. Mihirakula in particular is remembered byBuddhist sources to have been a "terrible persecutor of their religion" inGandhara in northern (modern day)Pakistan.[118] During his reign, over one thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed.[119] In particular, the writings of Chinese monkXuanzang from 630 CE explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction ofBuddhism and the expulsion of monks.[52]: 162 Indeed, the Buddhist art of Gandhara, in particularGreco-Buddhist art, becomes essentially extinct around that period. When Xuanzang visited northwestern India inc. 630 CE, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins.[120]
Although the Guptas were traditionally aHindu dynasty,[121] around the period of the invasions of the Alchon the Gupta rulers had apparently been favouring Buddhism. According to contemporary writerParamartha,Mihirakula's supposed nemesisNarasimhagupta Baladitya was brought up under the influence of theMahayanist philosopherVasubandhu.[121] He built asangharama atNalanda and a 300 ft (91 m) highvihara with a Buddha statue within which, according to Xuanzang, resembled the "great Vihara built under theBodhi tree". According to theManjushrimulakalpa (c. 800 CE), king Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist monk, and left the world through meditation (Dhyana).[121] Xuanzang also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya's son Vajra, who also commissioned a sangharama, "possessed a heart firm in faith".[122]: 45 [123]: 330
The 12th centuryKashmiri historianKalhana also painted a dreary picture of Mihirakula's cruelty, as well as his persecution of the Buddhist faith:
Alchon king with small male figure wearing solarnimbus.
In him, the northern region brought forth, as it were, another god of death, bent in rivalry to surpass...Yama (the god of death residing in the southern regions). People knew of his approach by noticing the vultures, crows and other birds flying ahead eager to feed on those who were being slain within his army's reach. The royalVetala (demon) was day and night surrounded by thousands of murdered human beings, even in his pleasure houses. This terrible enemy of mankind had no pity for children, no compassion for women, no respect for the aged
The Alchons are generally described as sun worshipers, a traditional cult ofsteppe nomads. This stems from the appearance of sun symbols on some of their coins, combined with the probable influence they received from the worship ofSurya in India.[124]
The HinduVaishnavite goddessLakshmi, goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity and also an ancient goddess ofBuddhism, also appears on the coinage of some rulers, especiallyKhingila,[125][126] andToramana.
Mihirakula is also said to have been an ardent worshiper ofShiva,[127][128] although he may have been selectively attracted to the destructive powers of the Indian deity.[97]
The Alchon invasions, although only spanning a few decades, had long term effects on India, and in a sense brought an end to themiddle kingdoms of India.[97]
Political fragmentation of South Asia after the fall of theGupta Empire and the retreat of the Alchon Huns to the northwest, circa 600 CE.[131]
Indian urban culture was left in decline. Major traditional cities, such asKausambi and probablyUjjain were in ruins,Vidisha andMathura fell into decline.[132]Buddhism, gravely weakened by the destruction of monasteries and the killing of monks, started to collapse.[97] Great centers of learning were destroyed, such as the city ofTaxila, bringing cultural regression.[97] Theart of Mathura suffered greatly from the destructions brought by the Hunas, as did theart of Gandhara in the northwest, and both schools of art were nearly wiped out under the rule of theHunaMihirakula.[133] New cities arose from these destructions, such asDashapura,Kanyakubja,Sthaneshvara,Valabhi andShripura.[1]
Soon after the invasions, theGupta Empire, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers, ended as well.[112]: 221 Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas.[134] Many autonomous regional states rose to prominence following the dislocation of Gupta power: theAulikaras, theMaukharis, theMaitrakas, theKalacuris or theVardhanas, all in a constant flux of rivalry.[132] With the end of Hunnic power, some India polities, such as theMaukhari dynasty were able to establish direct contacts withCentral Asia and theSasanian Empire: the Maukhari KingŚarvavarman ofKannauj is said to have introduced the game ofchess to the Sasanian court ofKhosrow I, between the beginning of Śarvavarman's reign in 560/565 and the end of Khosrow's reign in 579.[135][136]
Vaisnavism, which had been strongly supported by the Gupta Empire, was discredited by the decline and the ultimate failure of the Empire.[1] All the newly arising regional powers preferred adoptingSaivism instead, as did the Alchon Huns under Mihirakula, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship ofShiva, and its ideology of power.[1] Vaisnavism only remained strong in the territories which had not been affected by these events:South India andKashmir.[1]
Artistic syncretism: "A Nomadic Interlude in Indian Art"
Fragment of a lid with a hunting scene, Gandhara, 5-6th century CE.[137]
The advances of the Alchon Huns in India seems to have fostered a type of syncretic art in Gandhara during the 5th-6th century, mixingGupta art withSasanian and Hunish inspiration and themes.[138] Particularly significant are a type of decorated lids fromGandhara which display courtly or hunting scenes, mixing them with Gupta decorative designs.[138]
Lid with Combat between a Man and a Lion. Cleveland Museum of Art.[139]
Box Lid with a Winged Lion, Gandhara, 5th century CE
Box Lid with a Lion Attacking an Elephant, Gandhara, 5th century CE.[140]
Box Lid with a Phoenix, Gandhara, 5th century CE.[141]
Several silver bowls related to the Alchons have been found in the area ofSamarkand, including the "Chilek bowl" ("Čilek bowl"), which is considered as the "best known specimen of Hephthalite art", and is similar in composition with theHephthalite silver bowl, but represents "six dancers in Indian costume with Iranian ribbons and Hephthalite-short heads". Each of the dancers is positionned under a pointed arch in Indian style, and seems to be derived from contemporaryGupta art.[142] This bowl, too, is considered as an Alchon object, but was possibly manufactured in India at the request of the Alchons. It is now in theSamarkand Museum.[143][144][142]
The man in the medallion at the bottom of the Chilek bowl has a clearlyelongated skull, characteristic of the Alchons Huns at that time and place.[145]
As they invaded northern and central India circa 500 CE, the Alchon Huns issued several types of coinage on the model of theSasanian Empire, with ruler in profile on the obverse and sacred fire with attendants on the reverse.[146] It is thought that in the process of minting coins in occupied lands, they transmitted Sasanian coin designs to northern and western India.[146] This created a major type ofIndian coinage called "Indo-Sasanian coinage", which lasted in degraded form until the 12th century CE as far as the Gangetic region.[146]
TheGurjaras andGurjara-Pratiharas suddenly emerged as a political power in north India around sixth century CE, shortly after theHunas invasion of that region.[147] The Gujara-Pratihara were "likely" formed from a fusion of the Alchon Huns ("White Huns") and native Indian element, and can probably be considered as aHunnic state, although its precise origins remain unclear.[148] InBana'sHarshacharita (7th century CE), the Gurjaras are associated with the Hunas.[149] Some of the Hunas may also have contributed to the formation of the warlikeRajputs.[148]
Ancient sources refer to the Alchons and associated groups ambiguously with various names, such asHuna in Indian texts, andXionites in Greek texts.Xuanzang chronicled some of the later history of the Alchons.[96]
Modern archeology has provided valuable insights into the history of the Alchons. The most significant cataloguing of the Alchon dynasty came in 1967 with Robert Göbl's analysis of the coinage of the "Iranian Huns".[150] This work documented the names of a partial chronology of Alchon kings, beginning with Khingila. In 2012, theKunsthistorisches Museum completed areanalysisArchived 17 February 2021 at theWayback Machine of previous finds together with a large number of new coins that appeared on the antiquities market during theSecond Afghan Civil War, redefining the timeline and narrative of the Alchons and related peoples.[113]
A significant contribution to our understanding of Alchon history came in 2006 when Gudrun Melzer and Lore Sander published their finding of the "Talagan copper scroll", also known as the "Schøyen Copper Scroll", dated to 492 or 493, that mentions the four Alchon kings Khingila, Toramana, Javukha, and Mehama (who was reigning at the time) as donors to a Buddhist reliquarystupa.[151][Note 4][Note 5]
The rulers of the Alchons practiced skull deformation, as evidenced from their coins, a practice shared with theHuns that migrated into Europe. The names of the first Alchon rulers do not survive. Starting from 430 CE, names of Alchon kings survive on coins[150] and religious inscriptions:[151]
An early Alchon Huns coin based on a Sasanian design, with bust imitating Sasanian kingShapur III. Only the legend "Alchono" appears on the obverse in the Greco-Bactrian script.[37][48][152]
Early Bactrian coinage based on Sasanian designs
The earliest Alchon Hun coins were based onSasanian designs, often with the simple addition of the Alchontamgha and a mention of "Alchon" or "Alkhan".[38] Various coins minted inBactria and based on Sasanian designs are known, often with busts imitating Sasanian kingsShapur II (r.309 to 379 CE) andShapur III (r.383 to 388 CE), with attendants to afire altar on the reverse.[48][49] It is thought that the Sasanids lost control ofBactria to theKidarites during the reign of Shapur II circa 370 CE, followed by theHephthalites, and subsequently by the Alchon.[40]
Later original coinage
Later Alchon coinage became original and differed from predecessors in that it was devoid of Iranian (Sasanian) symbolism.[46] The rulers are depicted with elongated skulls, apparently a result ofartificial cranial deformation.[46]
After their invasion of India the coins of the Alchon were numerous and varied, as they issued copper, silver and gold coins, sometimes roughly following the Gupta pattern. The Alchon empire in India must have been quite significant and rich, with the ability to issue a significant volume of gold coins.[153]
Silver coin ofToramana in WesternGupta style, with the Gupta peacock andBrahmi legend on the reverse. Similar to the silver coin type ofSkandagupta. On the obverse the date "52" is also inscribed.[154] A modern Image:[1].
^"Here, for the first time, the names of Hepthalite (Alchon) kings are given, some of them otherwise known only from coins. Another important fact is that it dates all these kings in the same time." fromAydogdy Kurbanov (2010).The hephthalites: archaeological and historical analysis. Berlin: Free University of Berlin. p. 120.OCLC863884689. Retrieved17 June 2018.
^"After the successful conclusion of theEran episode, the conqueringHunas ultimately burst out of EasternMalwa and swooped down upon the very heart of the Gupta empire. The eastern countries were overrun and the city of the Gaudas was occupied. The Manjusrimulakalpa gives a scintillating account of this phase of Toramana's conquest. It says that afterBhanugupta's defeat and discomfiture, Toramana led the Hunas against Magadha and obliged Baladitya (Narasimha-gupta Baladitya, the reigning Gupta monarch) to retire toBengal. This great monarch (Toramana), Sudra by caste and possessed of great prowess and armies took hold of that position (bank of the Ganges) and commanded the country round about. That powerful king then invested the town calledTirtha in theGauda country." inUpendra Thakur (1967).The Hūṇas in India. Vol. 58. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. p. 122.OCLC551489665.
^"The earth betook itself (for succour), when it was afflicted by kings of the present age, who manifested pride; who were cruel through want of proper training; who,from delusion, transgressed the path of good conduct; (and) who were destitute of virtuous delights " from"Sondhni pillars: where Punjabis met with their Waterloo 1500 years ago".Punjab Monitor. Amritsar: Bhai Nand Lal Foundation. 27 April 2013. Retrieved8 July 2018.
^"Together with the great sahi Khingila, together with the god-king Toramana, together with the mistress of a great monastery Sasa, together with the great sahi Mehama, together with Sadavikha, together with the great king Javukha, the son of Sadavikha, during the reign of Mehama."fromGudrun Melzer; Lore Sander (2000). Jens Braarvig (ed.).A Copper Scroll Inscription from the Time of the Alchon Huns. Buddhist manuscripts. Vol. 3. Oslo: Hermes Pub. pp. 251–278.ISBN9788280340061.
^For an image of the copper scroll: Coin Cabinet of the Kunsthistorisches Museum ViennaShowcase 8Archived 15 November 2020 at theWayback Machine
^"Note 8: It is now clear that the Hephtalites were not part of those Huns who conquered the land south of the Hindu-Kush and Sind as well in the early 6th century. In fact, this latter Hunnic group was the one commonly known as Alkhon because of the inscriptions on their coins (Vondrovec, 2008)."
^"It is possible that the Sogdian aristocratic culture of that time preserved some memory of the glorious days of Khingila, the first Hephthalite conqueror of India. The profile of Rustam, shown on different paintings at Pendzhikent, is very distinct from the other depictions in the Sogdian art, and resembles the Hephthalite prototypes. The portraits feature narrow skulls, V-shaped eyebrows, hooked noses and heavy jaws, and thus closely resemble some portraits of Khingila on the coins(Grenet 2002, 218-219)."Kurbanov, Aydogdy (2014)."THE HEPHTHALITES: ICONOGRAPHICAL MATERIALS"(PDF).Tyragetia:317–334.
^ALRAM, MICHAEL (2014). "From the Sasanians to the Huns New Numismatic Evidence from the Hindu Kush".The Numismatic Chronicle.174: 268.ISSN0078-2696.JSTOR44710198.
^"This makes it quite clear that the Alchon Huns in India must have had a substantial and rich empire, with the capacity to issue a relatively large volume of gold coins." inTANDON, PANKAJ (7 July 2015). "The Identity of Prakāśāditya".Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.25 (4): 668.doi:10.1017/S1356186315000346.hdl:2144/37851.S2CID43869990.Full article
^The "h" () is an early variant of the Gupta script.
^The "h" () is an early variant of the Gupta script. Rev: Dotted border around Fire altar flanked by attendants, a design adopted fromSasanian coinage.
^PAL, PRATAPADITYA (1973)."Bronzes of Kashmir: Their Sources and Influences".Journal of the Royal Society of Arts.121 (5207): 727.ISSN0035-9114.JSTOR41371150.Before the Karkotas came to the throne, Kashmir may have been occupied by a long succession of foreign rulers or tribes. Certainly both the Kushänas and the Huns were present in the area for centuries. Indeed, the history of Kashmir begins to take shape only with the foundation of the Karkota dynasty around AD 625. The immediate predecessors of the Karkotas appear to have been Huns...
^Cribb, Joe (1 April 2017)."Early Medieval Kashmir Coinage – A New Hoard and An Anomaly".Numismatic Digest.40: 99.It seems very likely therefore that the rulers of Kashmir at this period were descendants of the Hun kings who ruled large parts of northwestern India from the mid-4th to the 6th century"
^"He is credited with the building of the temple named Jyeshteswara on the Gopa (Sankaracharya) hill in Srinagar" inBamzai, Prithivi Nath Kaul (1980).Kashmir and Central Asia. Light & Life Publishers. p. 63.
^abKim, Hyun Jin (19 November 2015).The Huns. Routledge. pp. 62–64.ISBN978-1-317-34091-1.Although it is not certain, it also seems likely that the formidable Gurjara Pratihara regime (ruled from the seventh-eleventh centuries AD) of northern India, had a powerfulWhite Hunnic element. The Gurjara Pratiharas who were likely created from a fusion of White Hunnic and native Indian elements, ruled a vast Empire in northern India, and they also halted Arab Muslim expansion in India through Sind for centuries.
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,[90](Ja)yatu Mihirakula ("Let there be victory to Mihirakula").[91][92][93][94]
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![Lid with Combat between a Man and a Lion. Cleveland Museum of Art.[139]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aLid_with_Combat_between_a_Man_and_a_Lion._Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.jpg)
![Box Lid with a Lion Attacking an Elephant, Gandhara, 5th century CE.[140]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBox_Lid_with_a_Lion_Attacking_an_Elephant%2c_Gandhara%2c_5th_century_CE.jpg)
![Box Lid with a Phoenix, Gandhara, 5th century CE.[141]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBox_Lid_with_a_Phoenix%2c_Gandhara%2c_5th_century_CE.jpg)
![Silver coin of Toramana in Western Gupta style, with the Gupta peacock and Brahmi legend on the reverse. Similar to the silver coin type of Skandagupta. On the obverse the date "52" is also inscribed.[154] A modern Image:[1].](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aToramana_coin_in_Western_Gupta_style.jpg)
![Khingila with the word "Alchono" in Bactrian script (αλχονο) and the Tamgha symbol on his coins.[155][156]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKhingila_Alchono_inscription.jpg)
![Silver drachm of Khingila (early portrait) without headdress, mid-late 5th century.[Note 6]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKhingila_of_the_Alchon_Huns_Circa_440-490_CE.jpg)
![Silver drachm of Khingila (mature portrait), Bactrian legend: χιγγιλο αλχοννο "Khiggilo Alchono".[Note 7]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aHunCoinDerivedFromSassanianDesign5thCE.JPG)
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Media related toAlchon Huns at Wikimedia Commons
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