The city was founded originally in the vicinity of an Egyptian settlement namedRhacotis (that became the Egyptian quarter of the city). Alexandria grew rapidly, becoming a major centre of Hellenic civilisation and replacing Memphis as Egypt's capital during the reign of the Ptolemaic pharaohs who succeeded Alexander. It retained this status for almost a millennium, through the period ofRoman and Eastern Roman rule until theMuslim conquest of Egypt in 641 AD, when a new capital was founded atFustat (later absorbed intoCairo).
The city was a major centre ofearlyChristianity and was the centre of thePatriarchate of Alexandria, which was one of the major centres of Christianity in theEastern Roman Empire. In the modern world, theCoptic Orthodox Church and theGreek Orthodox Church of Alexandria both lay claim to this ancient heritage. By 641, the city had already been largely plundered and lost its significance before re-emerging in the modern era.[8] From the late 18th century, Alexandria became a major centre of the internationalshipping industry and one of the most important trading centres in the world, both because it profited from the easy overland connection between the Mediterranean andRed Seas and the lucrative trade inEgyptian cotton.
Alexandria was located on the earlier Egyptian settlement, which was calledRhacotis (Ancient Greek:Ῥακῶτις,romanized: Rhakôtis), the Hellenised form ofEgyptianr-ꜥ-qd(y)t. As one of many settlements founded by Alexander the Great, the city he founded on Rhacotis was calledAlexándreia hḗ kat' Aígypton (Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἡ κατ' Αἴγυπτον), which some sources translated as "Alexandria by Egypt", as the city was, at that time, in the periphery of Egypt proper (the area beside theNile).[11] Some of the Alexandrian and Greek populaces, e.g.,Hypsicles, also referred to the city asAlexándreia hḗ prós Aígypton (Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἡ πρός Αἴγυπτον, "Alexandria near Egypt").[12] In the course ofRoman rule in Egypt, the city's name wasLatinised asAlexandrēa ad Aegyptum.
Radiocarbon dating of seashell fragments and lead contamination show human activity at the location during the period of theOld Kingdom (27th–21st centuries BC) and again in the period 1000–800 BC, followed by the absence of activity after that.[13] From ancient sources it is known there existed a trading post at this location during the time ofRameses the Great for trade withCrete, but it had long been lost by the time of Alexander's arrival.[6] A small Egyptian fishing village namedRhakotis (Egyptian:rꜥ-qdy.t, 'That which is built up') existed since the 13th century BC in the vicinity and eventually grew into the Egyptian quarter of the city.[6] Just east of Alexandria (whereAbu Qir Bay is now), there were in ancient times marshland and several islands. As early as the 7th century BC, there existed important port cities ofCanopus andHeracleion. The latter was recently rediscovered underwater.
Alexandria was founded byAlexander the Great in April 331 BC asἈλεξάνδρεια (Alexandreia), asone of his many city foundations. After he captured theEgyptian Satrapy from thePersians, Alexander wanted to build alarge Greek city on Egypt's coast that would bear his name. He chose the site of Alexandria, envisioning the building of a causeway to the nearby island ofPharos that would generate two great natural harbours.[6] Alexandria was intended to supersede the olderGreek colony ofNaucratis as aHellenistic center in Egypt and to be the link between Greece and the richNile valley. A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt and never returned to the city during his life.
After Alexander's departure, hisviceroyCleomenes continued the expansion. The architectDinocrates of Rhodes designed the city, using aHippodamiangrid plan. Following Alexander's death in 323 BC, his generalPtolemy Lagides took possession of Egypt and brought Alexander's body to Egypt with him.[14] Ptolemy at first ruled from the old Egyptian capital ofMemphis. In 322/321 BC he had Cleomenes executed. Finally, in 305 BC, Ptolemy declared himselfPharaoh as Ptolemy I Soter ("Savior") and moved his capital to Alexandria.
Although Cleomenes was mainly in charge of overseeing Alexandria's early development, theHeptastadion and the mainland quarters seem to have been primarilyPtolemaic work. Inheriting the trade of ruinedTyre and becoming the centre of the new commerce between Europe and theArabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a generation to be larger thanCarthage. In one century, Alexandria had become the largest city in the world and, for some centuries more, was second only to Rome. It became Egypt's main Greek city, withGreek people from diverse backgrounds.[15]
TheSeptuagint, a Greek version of theTanakh, was produced there. The early Ptolemies kept it in order and fostered the development of its museum into the leading Hellenistic centre of learning (Library of Alexandria, which faced destruction duringCaesar'ssiege of Alexandria in 47 BC), but were careful to maintain the distinction of its population's three largest ethnicities: Greek,Egyptian and Jewish.[16] By the time ofAugustus, the city grid encompassed an area of 10 km2 (3.9 sq mi),[17] and the total population during the Romanprincipate was around 500,000–600,000, which would wax and wane in the course of the next four centuries under Roman rule.[18]
According toPhilo of Alexandria, in the year 38 AD, disturbances erupted between Jews and Greek citizens of Alexandria during a visit paid by KingAgrippa I to Alexandria, principally over the respect paid by the Herodian nation to theRoman emperor, which quickly escalated to open affronts and violence between the two ethnic groups and the desecration of Alexandrian synagogues. This event has been called theAlexandrian pogroms. The violence was quelled afterCaligula intervened and had the Roman governor, Flaccus, removed from the city.[19]
In 115 AD, large parts of Alexandria were destroyed during theDiaspora revolt, which gaveHadrian and his architect,Decriannus, an opportunity to rebuild it. In 215 AD, the emperorCaracalla visited the city and, because of some insultingsatires that the inhabitants had directed at him, abruptly commanded his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing arms. On 21 July 365 AD, Alexandria was devastated by atsunami (365 Crete earthquake),[20] an event annually commemorated years later as a "day of horror".[21]
In 619, Alexandriafell to theSassanid Persians. The city was mostly uninjured by the conquest and a new palace calledTarawus was erected in the eastern part of the city, later known as Qasr Faris, "fort of the Persians".[22] Although theByzantine emperorHeraclius recovered it in 629, in 641 the Arabs under the general'Amr ibn al-'As invaded it during theMuslim conquest of Egypt, after asiege that lasted 14 months. The first Arab governor of Egypt recorded to have visited Alexandria wasUtba ibn Abi Sufyan, who strengthened the Arab presence and built a governor's palace in the city in 664–665.[23][24]
In reference to Alexandria,Ibn Battuta speaks of a number ofMuslim saints that resided in the city. One such saint was Imam Borhan Oddin El Aaraj, who was said to perform miracles. Another notable figure was Yaqut al-'Arshi, a disciple ofAbu Abbas El Mursi.[25][26] Ibn Battuta also writes about Abu 'Abdallah al-Murshidi, a saint that lived in the Minyat of Ibn Murshed. Although al-Murshidi lived in seclusion, Ibn Battuta writes that he was regularly visited by crowds, high state officials, and even by the Sultan of Egypt at the time,al-Nasir Muhammad.[25] Ibn Battuta also visited the Pharos lighthouse on two occasions: in 1326 he found it to be partly in ruins and in 1349 it had deteriorated to the point that it was no longer possible to enter.[27]
Alexandria in the late 18th century, byLuigi Mayer
During theMiddle Ages, theMamluk Sultanate provided amenities for European merchants to stay in the port cities of Alexandria andDamietta, sohotels were built and placed at the merchants' disposal so that they could live according to the pattern they were accustomed to in their country. Alexandria lost much of its importance in international trade afterPortuguese navigators discovered a new sea route toIndia in the late 15th century. This reduced the amount of goods that needed to be transported through the Alexandrian port, as well as the Mamluks' political power.[28] After theBattle of Ridaniya in 1517, the city was conquered by theOttoman Turks and remained underOttoman rule until 1798. Alexandria lost much of its former importance to the Egyptian port city ofRosetta during the 9th to 18th centuries, and it only regained its former prominence with the construction of theMahmoudiyah Canal in 1820.[citation needed]
Alexandria figured prominently in the military operations ofNapoleon'sexpedition to Egypt in 1798. French troops stormed the city on 2 July 1798, and it remained in their hands until the arrival of a British expedition in 1801. The British won a considerable victory over the French at theBattle of Alexandria on 21 March 1801, following which theybesieged the city, which fell to them on 2 September 1801.Muhammad Ali, the Ottoman governor of Egypt, began rebuilding and redevelopment around 1810 and, by 1850, Alexandria had returned to something akin to its former glory.[29] Egypt turned to Europe in their effort to modernise the country. Greeks, followed by other Europeans and others, began moving to the city. In the early 20th century, the city became a home for novelists and poets.[8]
In July 1882, the city came underbombardment from British naval forces and was occupied.[30]
In July 1954, the city was a target of an Israeli bombing campaign that later became known as theLavon Affair. On 26 October 1954, Alexandria's Mansheya Square was the site of a failed assassination attempt onGamal Abdel Nasser.[31]
Europeans began leaving Alexandria following the 1956Suez Crisis that led to an outburst ofArab nationalism. The nationalisation of property by Nasser, which reached its highest point in 1961, drove out nearly all the rest.[8]
Alexandria is located in the country of Egypt, on the southern coast of the Mediterranean. It is in the Far WestNile delta area.[32] It is a densely populated city; its core areas belie its large administrative area.
Region
(Population)
Area km2
Density per km2 (2020)
1996
2020 proj*
Alexandria, 14 kisms (contiguous)
2,199,000
4,439,000
203.57
21,805
Notes:2020 CAPMAS projection based on 2017 revised census figures, may differ significantly from 2017 census preliminary tabulations. The 14 kisms were reported simply asAlexandria city by CAPMAS in 2006 but given explosive growth definitions, likely informal, may have changed or may be set to change. Same area with 12 kisms existed in 1996. Kisms are considered 'fully urbanised'[33]
Alexandria has ahot steppe climate (Köppen climate classification:BSh),[34] virtuallyhot desert climate (Köppen climate classification:BWh).[35] Like the rest ofEgypt's northern coast, the prevailing north wind, blowing across the Mediterranean, gives the city a less severe climate than the desert hinterland.[36]Rafah and Alexandria[37] are the wettest places in Egypt; the other wettest places areRosetta,Baltim,Kafr el-Dawwar, andMersa Matruh. The city's climate is influenced by theMediterranean Sea, moderating its temperatures, causing variable rainy winters and moderately hot and slightly prolonged summers that, at times, can be very humid; January and February are the coolest months, with daily maximum temperatures typically ranging from 12 to 18 °C (54 to 64 °F) and minimum temperatures that could reach 5 °C (41 °F).
Alexandria experiencesviolent storms, rain and sometimessleet andhail during the cooler months; these events, combined with a poor drainage system, have been responsible for occasional flooding in the city in the past though they rarely occur anymore.[38] July and August are the hottest and driest months of the year, with an average daily maximum temperature of 30 °C (86 °F). The average annual rainfall is around 211 mm (8.3 in) but has been as high as 417 mm (16.4 in)[39]
The highest recorded temperature was 45 °C (113 °F) on 30 May 1961, and the coldest recorded temperature was 0 °C (32 °F) on 31 January 1994.[40][41][42][43][44]
Climate data for Alexandria (El Nouzha Airport) 1991–2020, extremes 1957–present
A 2019 paper published inPLOS One estimated that underRepresentative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a "moderate" scenario ofclimate change where global warming reaches ~2.5–3 °C (4.5–5.4 °F) by 2100, the climate of Alexandria in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate ofGaza City. The annual temperature would increase by 2.8 °C (5.0 °F), and the temperature of the warmest and the coldest month by 2.9 °C (5.2 °F) and 3.1 °C (5.6 °F).[47][48] According toClimate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with 2.7 °C (4.9 °F), which closely matches RCP 4.5.[49]
Due to its location on a Nile river delta, Alexandria is one of the most vulnerable cities tosea level rise in the entire world. According to some estimates, hundreds of thousands of people in its low-lying areas may already have to be relocated before 2030.[50] The 2022IPCC Sixth Assessment Report estimates that by 2050, Alexandria and 11 other major African cities (Abidjan,Algiers,Cape Town,Casablanca,Dakar,Dar es Salaam,Durban,Lagos,Lomé,Luanda andMaputo) would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$65 billion for the "moderate" climate change scenarioRCP 4.5 and US$86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5, while RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact frommarine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to US$137.5 billion in damages. Additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to US$187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, US$206 billion for RCP8.5 and US$397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario. In every single estimate, Alexandria alone bears around half of these costs.[51] Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures.[52] Recent studies published inEarth's Future by theAmerican Geophysical Union indicate that rising sea levels are causing increases in coastal aquifer levels, reaching building foundations and accelerating their corrosion and potential collapse. The study predicts that in 2025, more than 7000 buildings in Alexandria will be at risk of collapse due to these groundwater processes.[53]
Rhakotis (fromCopticRakotə,[contradictory] "Alexandria") was the old city that was absorbed into Alexandria. It was occupied chiefly by Egyptians.
Brucheum
Brucheum was the Royal or Greek quarter and formed the most magnificent portion of the city. InRoman times, Brucheum was enlarged by the addition of an official quarter, making four regions in all. The city was laid out as a grid of parallel streets, each of which had an attendant subterranean canal.
Jewish quarter
The Jewish quarter was the northeast portion of the city.
Two main streets, lined withcolonnades and said to have been each about 60 m (200 ft) wide, intersected in the centre of the city, close to the point where the Sema (or Soma) of Alexander (hisMausoleum) rose. This point is very near the presentmosque ofNebi Daniel; the line of the great East–West "Canopic" street is also present in modern-day Alexandria, having only slightly diverged from the line of the modern Boulevard de Rosette (now Sharae Fouad). Traces of its pavement and canal have been found near the Rosetta Gate, but remnants of streets and canals were exposed in 1899 by German excavators outside the east fortifications, which lie well within the area of the ancient city.
One of the pair ofCleopatra's Needles in Alexandria, which were relocated to London and New York in the late 19th century
Alexandria consisted originally of little more than the island of Pharos, which was joined to the mainland by a 1,260 m-long (4,130 ft)mole and called theHeptastadion ("seven stadia"—astadium was a Greekunit of length measuring approximately 180 m or 590 ft). The end of this abutted on the land at the head of the present Grand Square, where the "Moon Gate" rose. All that now lies between that point and the modern "Ras al-Tin" quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this mole. The Ras al-Tin quarter represents all that is left of the island of Pharos, the site of the actual lighthouse having been weathered away by the sea. On the east of the mole was the Great Harbour, now an open bay; on the west lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos, now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbour.
InStrabo's time (latter half of the 1st century BC), the principal buildings were as follows, enumerated as they were to be seen from a ship entering the Great Harbour.
TheRoyal Palaces, filling the northeast angle of the town and occupying the promontory of Lochias, which shut in the Great Harbour on the east. Lochias (the modern Pharillon) has almost entirely disappeared into the sea, together with the palaces, the "Private Port", and the island of Antirrhodus. There has been a landsubsidence here, as throughout the northeast coast of Africa.
The Navalia (Docks), lying west of the Timonium, along the seafront as far as the mole
Behind the Emporium rose theGreat Caesareum, by which stood the two greatobelisks which became known as "Cleopatra's Needles" and were transported to New York City and London. This temple became, in time, the Patriarchal Church, though some ancient remains of the temple have been discovered. The actual Caesareum, the parts not eroded by the waves, lies under the houses lining the new seawall.
TheGymnasium and thePalaestra are both inland, near the Boulevard de Rosette in the eastern half of the town; sites unknown.
The Mausolea of Alexander (Soma) and the Ptolemies in one ring-fence, near the point of intersection of the two main streets.
TheMusaeum with its famousLibrary and theater in the same region; site unknown.
TheSerapeum of Alexandria, the most famous of all Alexandrian temples. Strabo tells that this stood in the west of the city; and recent discoveries go far as to place it near "Pompey's Pillar", which was an independent monument erected to commemorateDiocletian's siege of the city.
The names of a few other public buildings on the mainland are known, but there is little information as to their actual position. None, however, are as famous as the building that stood on the eastern point of Pharos island. There,The Great Lighthouse, one of theSeven Wonders of the World, reputed to be 138 m (453 ft) high, was situated. The first Ptolemy began the project, and the second Ptolemy (Ptolemy II Philadelphus) completed it, at a total cost of 800 talents. It took 12 years to complete and served as aprototype for all laterlighthouses in the world. The light was produced by a furnace at the top and the tower was built mostly with solid blocks of limestone. The Pharos lighthouse was destroyed by an earthquake in the 14th century, making it the second longest surviving ancient wonder, after theGreat Pyramid of Giza. A temple ofHephaestus also stood on Pharos at the head of the mole.
In the 1st century, the population of Alexandria contained over 180,000 adult male citizens,[55] according to a census dated from 32 AD, in addition to a large number of freedmen, women, children and slaves. Estimates of the total population range from 216,000[56] to 500,000,[57] making it one of the largest cities ever built before theIndustrial Revolution and the largest pre-industrial city that was not an imperial capital.[citation needed]
Due to the constant presence of war in Alexandria in ancient times, very little of the ancient city has survived into the present day. Much of the royal and civic quarters sank beneath the harbour and the rest has been built over in modern times.
"Pompey's Pillar", aRoman triumphal column, is one of the best-knownancient monuments still standing in Alexandria today. It is located on Alexandria's ancientacropolis—a modest hill located adjacent to the city's Arabcemetery—and was originally part of a temple colonnade. Including itspedestal, it is 30 m (99 ft) high; the shaft is of polished red granite, 2.7 m (8.9 ft) in diameter at the base, tapering to 2.4 m (7.9 ft) at the top. The shaft is 88 ft (27 m) high and made out of a single piece of granite. Its volume is 132 m3 (4,662 cu ft) and weight approximately 396 tons.[58] Pompey's Pillar may have been erected using the same methods that were used to erect the ancientobelisks. TheRomans hadcranes, but they were not strong enough to lift something this heavy. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehrner conducted severalobelisk erecting experiments including a successful attempt to erect a 25-ton obelisk in 1999. This followed two experiments to erect smaller obelisks and two failed attempts to erect a 25-ton obelisk.[59][60]
"Pompey's Pillar" is amisnomer, as it has nothing to do withPompey, having been erected in 293 forDiocletian, possibly in memory of the rebellion ofDomitius Domitianus.[citation needed] The structure was plundered and demolished in the 4th century when a bishop decreed that Paganism must be eradicated.[citation needed] Beneath the acropolis itself are the subterranean remains of the Serapeum, where the mysteries of the godSerapis were enacted and whose carved wall niches are believed to have provided overflow storage space for the ancient Library. In more recent years, many ancient artifacts have been discovered from the surrounding sea, mostly pieces of old pottery.[citation needed]
Alexandria'scatacombs, known asKom El Shoqafa, are a short distance southwest of the pillar, consist of a multi-level labyrinth, reached via a largespiral staircase and featuring dozens of chambers adorned with sculpted pillars, statues, and othersyncretic Romano-Egyptianreligious symbols, burial niches, andsarcophagi, as well as a large Roman-style banquet room, where memorial meals were conducted by relatives of the deceased. The catacombs were long forgotten by the citizens until they were discovered by accident in 1900.[61]
The most extensive ancient excavation currently being conducted in Alexandria is known asKom El Deka. It has revealed the ancient city's well-preserved theater, and the remains of itsRoman-era baths.
The temple was built in the Ptolemy era and dedicated to Osiris, which finished the construction of Alexandria. It is located in Abusir, the western suburb of Alexandria in Borg el Arab city. Only the outer wall and the pylons remain from the temple. There is evidence to prove that sacred animals were worshiped there. Archaeologists found an animal necropolis near the temple. Remains of a Christian church show that the temple was used as a church in later centuries. Also found in the same area are remains of public baths built by the emperor Justinian, a seawall, quays and a bridge. Near the beach side of the area, there are the remains of a tower built by Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The tower was an exact scale replica of the destroyed AlexandrinePharos Lighthouse.[62]
Persistent efforts have been made to explore the antiquities of Alexandria. Encouragement and help have been given by the localArchaeological Society and by many individuals. Excavations were performed in the city by Greeks seeking the tomb of Alexander the Great without success.[63]The past and present directors of the museum have been enabled from time to time to carry out systematic excavations whenever opportunity is offered;D. G. Hogarth made tentative researches on behalf of theEgypt Exploration Fund and the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies in 1895; and a German expedition worked for two years (1898–1899). But two difficulties face the would-be excavator in Alexandria: lack of space for excavation and the underwater location of some areas of interest.
Since the great and growing modern city stands immediately over the ancient one, it is almost impossible to find any considerable space in which to dig, except at enormous cost.Cleopatra VII's royal quarters were inundated by earthquakes and tsunami, leading to gradualsubsidence in the 4th century AD.[64] This underwater section, containing many of the most interesting sections of the Hellenistic city, including the palace quarter, was explored in 1992 and is still being extensively investigated by the French underwater archaeologistFranck Goddio and histeam.[65] It raised a noted head ofCaesarion.[66] These are being opened up to tourists, to some controversy.[67] The spaces that are most open are the low grounds to northeast and southwest, where it is practically impossible to get below the Romanstrata.
The most important results were those achieved by Dr. G. Botti, late director of the museum, in the neighbourhood of "Pompey's Pillar", where there is a good deal of open ground. Here, substructures of a large building or group of buildings have been exposed, which are perhaps part of the Serapeum. Nearby, immensecatacombs andcolumbaria have been opened which may have been appendages of the temple. These contain one very remarkable vault with curious painted reliefs, now artificially lit and open to visitors.
The objects found in these researches are in the museum, the most notable being a great basalt bull, probably once an object of cult in the Serapeum. Other catacombs and tombs have been opened inKom El Shoqafa (Roman) and Ras El Tin (painted).
The German excavation team found remains of a Ptolemaic colonnade and streets in the north-east of the city, but little else. Hogarth explored part of an immense brick structure under the mound ofKom El Deka, which may have been part of the Paneum, the Mausolea, or a Roman fortress.
The making of the new foreshore led to the dredging up of remains of the Patriarchal Church; and the foundations of modern buildings are seldom laid without some objects of antiquity being discovered.
The most famous mosque in Alexandria isAbu al-Abbas al-Mursi Mosque inBahary. Other notable mosques in the city includeAli ibn Abi Talib mosque in Somouha,Bilal mosque, al-Gamaa al-Bahari in Mandara, Hatem mosque in Somouha, Hoda el-Islam mosque in Sidi Bishr, al-Mowasah mosque in Hadara, Sharq al-Madina mosque in Miami, al-Shohadaa mosque in Mostafa Kamel, Al Qa'ed Ibrahim Mosque,[68] Yehia mosque in Zizinia, Sidi Gaber mosque in Sidi Gaber, Sidi Besher mosque, Rokay el-Islam mosque in Elessway, Elsadaka Mosque in Sidibesher Qebly, Elshatbi mosque and Sultan mosque.
Today the Patriarchal seat of the Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church isSaint Mark Cathedral (though in practice the Patriarch has long resided in Cairo). The most important Coptic Orthodox churches in Alexandria includePope Cyril I Church in Cleopatra,Saint George's Church in Sporting,Saint Mark andPope Peter I Church in Sidi Bishr,Saint Mary Church in Assafra, Saint Mary Church in Gianaclis,Saint Mina Church in Fleming, Saint Mina Church in Mandara andSaint Takla Haymanot's Church in Ibrahimeya.
The Saint Mark Church inShatby, founded as part ofCollège Saint Marc, is multi-denominational and holds liturgies according to Latin Catholic,Coptic Catholic and Coptic Orthodox rites.
In antiquity Alexandria was a major centre of the cosmopolitan religious movement calledGnosticism[69] (today mainly remembered as a Christian heresy).
Alexandria’s Jewish community declined rapidly following the1948 Arab–Israeli War, after which negative reactions towardsZionism among Egyptians led to Jewish residents in the city, and elsewhere in Egypt, being perceived as Zionist collaborators. Most Jewish residents of Egypt moved to the newly settledIsrael,France,Brazil and other countries in the 1950s and 1960s. The community once numbered 50,000 but is now estimated at below 50.[70] The most importantsynagogue in Alexandria is theEliyahu Hanavi Synagogue.
In September 2023, The GreekUniversity of Patras announced that it is opening a branch in Alexandria, in a first-of-its-kind move by a Greek higher education institution. The Greek university of Patras branch will operate two departments, one Greek-speaking and one English-speaking in the subjects of Greek culture, Greek language and Greek philosophy.[72]
Alexandria has a long history of foreign educational institutions. The first foreign schools date to the early 19th century, when French missionaries began establishing French charitable schools to educate the Egyptians. Today, the most important French schools in Alexandria run byCatholic missionaries include Collège de la Mère de Dieu, Collège Notre Dame de Sion,Collège Saint Marc, Écoles des Soeurs Franciscaines (four different schools), École Girard, École Saint Gabriel, École Saint-Vincent de Paul, École Saint Joseph, École Sainte Catherine, and Institution Sainte Jeanne-Antide. As a reaction to the establishment of French religious institutions, a secular (laic) mission established Lycée el-Horreya, which initially followed a French system of education, but is currently run by the Egyptian government. The only school in Alexandria that completely follows the French educational system is Lycée Français d'Alexandrie (École Champollion). It is usually frequented by the children of French expatriates and diplomats in Alexandria. The Italian school is the Istituto "Don Bosco".
English-language schools in Alexandria are the most popular; those in the city include: Riada American School, Riada Language School, Forsan American School, Forsan International School, Alexandria Language School, Future Language School, Future International Schools (Future IGCSE, Future American School and Future German school), Alexandria American School,British School of Alexandria, Egyptian American School, Pioneers Language School,Egyptian English Language School, Princesses Girls' School, Sidi Gaber Language School, Zahran Language School, Taymour English School, Sacred Heart Girls' School,Schutz American School,Victoria College,El Manar Language School for Girls (previously called Scottish School for Girls), Kawmeya Language School, El Nasr Boys' School (previously called British Boys' School), andEl Nasr Girls' College (previously called English Girls' College).There are only two German schools in Alexandria which areDeutsche Schule der Borromärinnen (DSB of Saint Charles Borromé) and Neue Deutsche Schule Alexandria, which is run by Frau Sally Hammam.
TheMontessori educational system was first introduced in Alexandria in 2009 at Alexandria Montessori.
Around the 1890s, twice the percentage of women in Alexandria knew how to read compared to the same percentage in Cairo. As a result, specialist women's publications likeal-Fatāh by Hind Nawal, the country's first women's journal, appeared.[73]
The city's principal airport is currentlyBorg El Arab Airport, which is located about 25 km (16 mi) away from the city centre.
From late 2011,El Nouzha Airport (Alexandria International Airport) was to be closed to commercial operations for two years as it underwent expansion, with all airlines operating out ofBorg El Arab Airport from then onwards, where a brand new terminal was completed there in February 2010.[74] In 2017, the government announced that Alexandria International Airport will shut down permanently and will no longer reopen.
Alexandria has four ports; namely the Western Port also known asAlexandria Port, which is the main port of the country that handles about 60% of the country's exports and imports,[citation needed] Dekhela Port west of the Western Port, the Eastern Port which is a yachting harbour, and Abu Qir Port at the northern east of the governorate. It is a commercial port for general cargo and phosphates.[citation needed]
Alexandria plays host to two intercity railway stations: the aforementionedMisr Station (in the older Manshia district in the western part of the city) andSidi Gaber railway station (in the district of Sidi Gaber in the centre of the eastern expansion in which most Alexandrines reside), both of which also serve the commuter rail line. Intercity passenger service is operated byEgyptian National Railways.
An extensive tramway network was built in 1860 and is the oldest in Africa.[75] The network begins at theEl Raml district in the west and ends in theVictoria district in the east.
The RoyalLibrary of Alexandria, in Alexandria,Egypt, was once the largest library in the world. It is generally thought to have been founded at the beginning of the 3rd century BC, during the reign ofPtolemy II of Egypt. It was likely created after his father had built what would become the first part of the library complex, the temple of theMuses—theMuseion, GreekΜουσείον (from which theModern English wordmuseum is derived).
It has been reasonably established that the library, or parts of the collection, were destroyed by fire on a number of occasions (library fires were common and replacement of handwritten manuscripts was very difficult, expensive, and time-consuming). To this day, the details of the destruction (or destructions) remain a lively source of controversy.[77]
TheAlexandria National Museum was inaugurated 31 December 2003. It is located in a restored Italian style palace in Tariq El Horreya Street (formerly Rue Fouad), near the centre of the city. It contains about 1,800 artifacts that narrate the story of Alexandria andEgypt. Most of these pieces came from other Egyptian museums.[citation needed] The museum is housed in the old Al-Saad Bassili Pasha Palace, who was one of the wealthiest wood merchants in Alexandria. Construction on the site was first undertaken in 1926.[citation needed]
TheGraeco-Roman Museum was the city's main archeological museum, focused on artifacts from its Greco-Roman period. It was opened in 1892 and was closed in 2005 for extensive renovations and expansion.[79][80] The museum re-opened to the public in October 2023.[81]
The main sport that interests Alexandrians is football, as is the case in the rest of Egypt and Africa.Alexandria Stadium is amulti-purpose stadium in Alexandria,Egypt. It is currently used mostly for football matches and was used for the2006 African Cup of Nations. The stadium is the oldest stadium in Egypt, being built in 1929. The stadium holds 20,000 people.[92] Alexandria was one of three cities that participated in hosting theAfrican Cup of Nations in January 2006, whichEgypt won. Sea sports such assurfing,jet-skiing andwater polo are practiced on a lower scale. The Skateboarding culture in Egypt started in this city. The city is also home to theAlexandria Sporting Club, which is especially known for its basketball team, which traditionally provides thecountry's national team with key players. The city hosted theAfroBasket, the continent's most prestigious basketball tournament, on four occasions (1970, 1975, 1983, 2003).
Alexandria is also known as the yearly starting point ofCross Egypt Challenge and a huge celebration is conducted the night before the rally starts after all the international participants arrive to the city.Cross Egypt Challenge is an international cross-country motorcycle and scooter rally conducted throughout the most difficult tracks and roads of Egypt.
^Erman, Adolf, andHermann Grapow, eds. 1926–1953.Wörterbuch der aegyptischen Sprache im Auftrage der deutschen Akademien. 6 vols. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs'schen Buchhandlungen. (Reprinted Berlin: Akademie-Verlag GmbH, 1971).
^O'Connor, Lauren (2009) "The Remains of Alexander the Great: The God, The King, The Symbol",Constructing the Past: Vol. 10: Iss. 1, Article 8
^Erskine, Andrew (April 1995). "Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser".Culture and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Museum and Library of Alexandria.42 (1): 38–48 [42].One effect of the newly created Hellenistic kingdoms was the imposition of Greek cities occupied by Greeks on an alien landscape. In Egypt, there was a native Egyptian population with its own culture, history, and traditions. The Greeks who came to Egypt, to the court or to live in Alexandria, were separated from their original cultures. Alexandria was the main Greek city of Egypt and within it, there was an extraordinary mix of Greeks from many cities and backgrounds.
^Erskine, Andrew (April 1995)."Culture and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: the Museum and Library of Alexandria".Greece & Rome.42 (1):38–48.doi:10.1017/S0017383500025213.hdl:20.500.11820/0250d217-8139-4aca-8a8e-8a701b81b9a2.S2CID162578339.Archived from the original on 10 May 2022. Retrieved16 October 2021.The Ptolemaic emphasis on Greek culture establishes the Greeks of Egypt with an identity for themselves. [...] But the emphasis on Greek culture does even more than this – these are Greeks ruling in a foreign land. The more Greeks can indulge in their own culture, the more they can exclude non-Greeks, in other words Egyptians, the subjects whose land has been taken over. The assertion of Greek culture serves to enforce Egyptian subjection. So the presence in Alexandria of two institutions devoted to the preservation and study of Greek culture acts as a powerful symbol of Egyptian exclusion and subjection. Texts from other cultures could be kept in the library, but only once they had been translated, that is to say Hellenized.[...] A reading of Alexandrian poetry might easily give the impression that Egyptians did not exist at all; indeed Egypt itself is hardly mentioned except for the Nile and the Nile flood, [...] This omission of the Egypt and Egyptians from poetry masks a fundamental insecurity. It is no coincidence that one of the few poetic references to Egyptians presents them as muggers.
^Hanson and Ortman, A systematic method for estimating the populations of Greek and Roman settlements November 2017, Journal of Roman Archaeology 30(1):301-324
^Stiros, Stathis C.: "The AD 365 Crete earthquake and possible seismic clustering during the fourth to sixth centuries AD in the Eastern Mediterranean: a review of historical and archaeological data",Journal of Structural Geology, Vol. 23 (2001), pp. 545–562 (549 & 557)
^Butler, Alfred J. (1902).The Arab Conquest Of Egypt. Osmania University, Digital Library Of India. Oxford At The Clarendon Press.
^abIbn Batuta (2009).The travels of Ibn Battuta in the Near East, Asia and Africa 1304–1377. Translated by Lee, Samuel. New York: Cosimo.ISBN9781605206219.OCLC502998972.
^"AL-ISKANDARIYAH".citypopulation.de.Archived from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved9 February 2022.
^ab"Alexandria Nouzha Normals 1991–2020".World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived fromthe original on 1 October 2023. Retrieved1 October 2023.
^ab"Alexandria/Nouzha".World Meteorological Organization Climatological Reference Normals (1961–1990). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived fromthe original on 1 October 2023. Retrieved1 October 2023.
^"Alexandria".Encyclopædia Britannica.Archived from the original on 29 May 2010. Retrieved1 December 2009.
^Trisos, C.H., I.O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N.P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022:Chapter 9: Africa. InClimate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 2043–2121
^Kendall, Elisabeth. "Between Politics and Literature: Journals in Alexandria and Istanbul at the End of the Nineteenth Century" (Chapter 15). In: Fawaz, Leila Tarazi and C. A. Bayly (editors) and Robert Ilbert (collaboration).Modernity and Culture: From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean.Columbia University Press, 2002.ISBN0231114273, 9780231114271. Start: p.330Archived 28 January 2020 at theWayback Machine. CITED: p.340Archived 26 February 2020 at theWayback Machine.
^"Baltimore Sister Cities".baltimoresistercities.org. Baltimore Sister Cities, Inc.Archived from the original on 26 October 2020. Retrieved21 October 2020.
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2) Hassan, Mahmoud. "The Legacy of Ali ibn Abi Talib Mosque: A Historical Analysis." International Journal of Architectural Research, vol. 12, no. 3, 2019, pp. 321–336.
3) Abdallah, Fatma. "The Cultural Significance of Bilal Mosque in Alexandria: A Study in Religious Architecture." Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 27, no. 4, 2020, pp. 45–60.
4) Ali, Mustafa. "Intellectual Centers of Islamic Learning in Medieval Alexandria." Alexandria Studies Journal, vol. 8, no. 1, 2015, pp. 123–140.
A. Bernard, E. Bernand, J. Yoyotte, F. Goddio, et al.,Alexandria, the submerged royal quarters, Periplus Publishing Ltd., London 1998,ISBN1-902699-00-9
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M. Haag,Alexandria: City of Memory (2004) [20th-century social and literary history]
M. Haag,Vintage Alexandria: Photographs of the City 1860–1960 (2008)
M. Haag,Alexandria Illustrated
R. Ilbert, I. Yannakakis,Alexandrie 1860–1960 (1992)
R. Ilbert,Alexandrie entre deux mondes (1988)
Judith McKenzie et al.,The Architecture of Alexandria and Egypt, 300 B.C.–A.D. 700. (Pelican History of Art, Yale University Press, 2007)
Philip Mansel,Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean, London, John Murray, 11 November 2010, hardback, 480 pages,ISBN978-0-7195-6707-0, New Haven, Yale University Press, 24 May 2011, hardback, 470 pages,ISBN978-0-300-17264-5
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