Analcoholic beverage is anydrink that containsalcohol, acentral nervous system depressant. They are typically divided into three classes:beers,wines, andspirits; withalcohol content typically between 3% and 50%. The exact amount on which a beverage is considered alcoholic differs by country, with some considering drinks containing less than 0.5% to benon-alcoholic. These beverages are primarily consumed for thepsychoactive effects that they produce.[1]
Many societies have a distinctdrinking culture, in which alcoholic drinks are integrated intoparties. Most countries havelaws regulating the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages.[2] Some regulations require the labeling of the percentage alcohol content (asABV orproof) and the use of awarning label.Some countriesban the consumption of alcoholic drinks, but they are legal in most parts of the world. Thetemperance movement advocates against the consumption of alcoholic beverages.[3] The globalalcoholic drink industry exceeded $1.5 trillion in 2017.[4] Alcohol is one of the most widely usedrecreational drugs in the world, and about 33% of all humans currently drink alcohol.[5] In 2015, amongAmericans, 86% of adults had consumed alcohol at some point, with 70% drinking it in the last year and 56% in the last month.[6] Several other animals are affected by alcohol similarly to humans and, once they consume it, will consume it again if given the opportunity; however, humans are the only species known to produce alcoholic drinks intentionally.[7]
Discovery of lateStone Age jugs suggests that intentionally fermented drinks existed at least as early as theNeolithic period.[9]
The oldest verifiablebrewery has been found in a prehistoric burial site in a cave nearHaifa in modern-dayIsrael. Researchers have found residue of 13,000-year-old beer that they think might have been used for ritual feasts to honor the dead. The traces of a wheat-and-barley-based alcohol were found in stone mortars carved into the cave floor.[10]
The Carmona Wine Urn contains the world's oldest surviving wine (1st century AD).
TheCarmona Wine Urn is a first centuryRomanglass urn containing intactwine. Discovered in 2019 inCarmona, Spain during excavations of the city's western Romannecropolis, analysis of the urn's contents five years after has deemed the vessel the oldest surviving wine in the world, surpassing the previous record holder, theSpeyer wine bottle (discovered in 1867) by three centuries.[11][12]
Beer was likely brewed frombarley as early as 13,000 years ago in the Middle East.[13]Pliny the Elder wrote about thegolden age of winemaking inRome, the 2nd century BCE (200–100 BCE), whenvineyards were planted.[14]
Examination and analysis of ancientpottery jars from the neolithic village ofJiahu in theHenan province of northern China revealed residue left behind by the alcoholic drinks they had once contained. Chemical analysis of the residue confirmed that a fermented drink made of grape and hawthorn fruit wine, honey mead and rice beer was being produced in 7000–5600 BC.[15][16][17] The residence in which the jar was discovered and other houses in the same village were found to contain many such jars suggesting that wine was an important part of their diet.[17]
The earliest evidence ofwinemaking was dated at 6,000 to 5,800 BCE inGeorgia in theSouth Caucasus.[18] Excavations surrounding Neolithic settlements there unearthed grape pips of a variety which differed from those of wild grapes, pointing to deliberate cultivation, and local pottery dated to approximately 6000 BCE was decorated with depictions of celebrating human figures.[17]
The earliest clear chemical evidence of beer produced frombarley dates to about 3500–3100 BCE, from the site ofGodin Tepe in theZagros Mountains of westernIran.[19][20] At a site dating to 3100-2900 BCE, a pottery vessel containing residue of alcoholic barley was discovered, possibly serving as the earliest proof of beer brewing in the region. However, it is unclear whether it was meant for intoxication or nourishment.[17]
Celtic people were known to have been making types of alcoholic cider as early as 3000 BCE.[21][22] and wine was consumed in Classical Greece at breakfast or atsymposia, and in the 1st century BCE.[23]
Archaeological finds as well as ancient documentation serve as testimony to the popularity and abundance of alcohol in theSumerian society.[24] Access to alcohol was regulated, the social elite indulged in it and it served as sacrificial offerings to the gods.[24] In Sumerian culture Alcohol was also a means for happiness.[24] In theepic of Gilgamesh,Enkidu the wild man drinks seven jugs of beer, becomes elated and sings with joy. Other characters routinely drink water, but drink alcohol when celebrating.[24] During the new year celebrations, the ceremonial reenactment of the drunken union between the king ofUruk and the high priestess ofIshtar, the goddess of procreation, symbolized the genesis ofNinkasi, the beer goddess.[24] A hymn to Ninkasi gives a detailed description of hash production in Sumer, involving the fermentation of bread and the addition of grapes and honey, resulting in an unfiltered brew drunk through straws.[24]
InHierakonpolis,Egypt, the remains of a brewery dating to circa 3400 BCE was unearthed, with an estimated yield of up to 1135 litres (300 US gallons) of brew per day.[25] Wine was a symbol of power and was imported from abroad, hence it was reserved for royalty and the social elite, while beer was the drink of common society.[25] In the tomb of theScorpion king, who ruled Hierakonpolis when the brewery was built, approximately 700 wine jars imported from the southern Levant were unearthed.[25] Financial documents recorded that the daily ration of beer for the workers who built thepyramids ofGiza was nearly 4 litres, and modern reproductions of the ancient recipe produced a brew weighed in at 5 percentABV, the same as that of the modern day pint.[25] Despite the many Egyptian sources describing brewing methods, very few discuss intoxication.[25] However, an annual celebration of the "Drunkenness ofHathor" commemorated the intoxication of the goddessSekhmet/Hathor with beer disguised as blood by other gods, causing her to fall into a drunken stupor and allowing them to take control over creation, an act which prevented her from exterminating humanity.[25] In honor of this deed a red coloured alcohol was drunk in large quantities during the festival causing similar intoxicated stupors.[25]Osiris was also associated with wine, as hisdeath and resurrection were compared to the cycle of withering and regrowth of the vine during the winter and spring.[26] TheOag festival, dedicated to Osiris, was marked by the drinking of wine, and during thelate dynastic period the devotees of Osiris would offer prayers and conduct rituals, after which they would drink wine and consume bread, believing that they had beentransubstantiated in to the flesh and blood of Osiris.[26] Multiple amphorae were discovered in the graves of pharaohs and elites as provisions for the afterlife and as offerings to Osiris, commonly with labels detailing their origin, maker, and date.[26] Over time, labels eventually included assessments of quality as well, such as "good," (nfr) "very good," (nfr nfr) or "very very good," (nfr nfr nfr) alongside provenance, and it was believed that certain vintages improved with age.[26] Archaeological findings reveal that some wines buried with their owners were several decades old, exceeding the average life expectancy, and therefore assumed to have outlived their creators.[26]
In Italy, the works ofTaddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeatedfractional distillation through a water-cooled still.[29] By the early 14th century, distilled alcoholic drinks had spread throughout theEuropean continent.[28] Distillation spread toIreland andScotland no later than the 15th century, as did the common European practice of distilling "aqua vitae", primarily for medicinal purposes.[30][31]
in 1690, England passed "An Act for the Encouraging of the Distillation of Brandy and Spirits from Corn"[32] Alcoholic beverages played an important role in theThirteen Colonies from their early days when drinking wine and beer at that time was safer than drinking water – which was usually taken from sources also used to dispose of sewage and garbage.[33] Drinking hard liquor was common occurrence in early nineteenth-century United States.[34]
TheWhiskey Rebellion (also known as the Whiskey Insurrection) was a violenttax protest in the United States beginning in 1791 and ending in 1794 during thepresidency of George Washington. The so-called "whiskey tax" was the first tax imposed on a domestic product by the newly formed federal government. Beer was difficult to transport and spoiled more easily than rum and whiskey.
TheRum Rebellion of 1808 was acoup d'état in the then-Britishpenal colony ofNew South Wales, staged by theNew South Wales Corps in order to deposeGovernorWilliam Bligh. Australia's first and only military coup, its name derives from the illicit rum trade of earlySydney, over which the 'Rum Corps', as it became known, maintained a monopoly. During the first half of the 19th century, it was widely referred to in Australia as the Great Rebellion.[35] Thealcohol monopoly system has a long history in various countries, often implemented to limit the availability and consumption of alcohol for public health and social welfare reasons.
Thealcohol monopoly was created in the Swedish town ofFalun in 1850, to prevent overconsumption and reduce theprofit motive for sales of alcohol. It later went all over the country in 1905 when theSwedish parliament ordered all sales of vodka to be done via local alcohol monopolies.[36] In 1894, theRussian Empire established a state monopoly on vodka, which became a major source of revenue for the Russian government.
Beer is a beverage fermented fromgrainmash. It is typically made frombarley or ablend of several grains and flavored withhops. Most beer is naturally carbonated as part of the fermentation process. If the fermented mash is distilled, then the drink becomes aspirit. Beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage in the world.[38]
Fermented water is anethanol-based water solution with approximately 15-17% ABV withoutsweet reserve. Fermented water is exclusivelyfermented withwhite sugar,yeast, and water. Fermented water is clarified after the fermentation to produce a colorless or off-white liquid with no discernible taste other than that ofethanol.
Mead (/miːd/), also called hydromel, is an alcoholic drink made by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with variousfruits,spices,grains, orhops. The alcoholic content of mead may range from as low as 3% ABV to more than 20%. The defining characteristic of mead is that the majority of the drink's fermentable sugar is derived fromhoney. Mead can also be referred to as "honeywine."
Wine is a fermented beverage most commonly produced fromgrapes. Wine involves a longer fermentation process than beer and often a longaging process (months or years), resulting in an alcohol content of 9%–16%ABV.
Wine, beer, and spirits are produced through the activity ofyeasts,[41] a group of roughly 160 species of single-celled fungi, some of which are beneficial, while others are associated withfood spoilage or human disease.[42] The most commonly used yeasts in fermentation and baking belong to the genusSaccharomyces, whose name means "sugar fungus".[42] These organisms are cultivated both for their role in generating flavors and aromas considered desirable, and for their ability to inhibit the growth of competingmicrobes which would otherwise infect food.[42] Their production of alcohol is linked to their capacity to function with minimaloxygen.[42] In the presence of oxygen, other living cellsmetabolise fuel molecules leaving behind onlycarbon dioxide and water, when oxygen is absent sugars can only partially be broken down, following the general equation (fromglucose to energy):[43]
Distilled beverages (also called liquors or spirit drinks) are alcoholic drinks produced bydistilling (i.e.,concentrating by distillation)ethanol produced by means offermenting grain, fruit, or vegetables.[44] Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic drinks that have an alcohol content of at least 20%ABV are calledspirits.[45] For the most common distilled drinks, such as whisky (or whiskey) and vodka, the alcohol content is around 40%. The termhard liquor is used inNorth America to distinguish distilled drinks from undistilled ones (implicitly weaker).Brandy,gin,mezcal,rum,tequila,vodka,whisky (or wiskey),baijiu,shōchū andsoju are examples of distilled drinks. Distillingconcentrates the alcohol and eliminates some of thecongeners.Freeze distillation concentrates ethanol along withmethanol andfusel alcohols (fermentation by-products partially removed by distillation) inapplejack.
Fortified wine is wine, such asport orsherry, to which a distilled beverage (usuallybrandy) has been added.[46] Fortified wine is distinguished from spirits made from wine in that spirits are produced by means ofdistillation, while fortified wine is wine that has had a spirit added to it. Many different styles of fortified wine have been developed, includingport, sherry,madeira,marsala,commandaria, and the aromatized winevermouth.[47]
Rectified spirit, also called "neutral grain spirit", is alcohol which has been purified by means of "rectification" (i.e. repeated distillation). The termneutral refers to the spirit's lack of flavor that would have been present if the mash ingredients had been distilled to a lower level of alcoholic purity. Rectified spirit also lacks any flavoring added to it after distillation (as is done, for example, withgin). Other kinds of spirits, such aswhiskey, (or whisky) are distilled to a lower alcohol percentage to preserve the flavor of the mash.
Rectified spirit is a clear, colorless, flammable liquid that may contain as much as 95%ABV. It is often used formedicinal purposes. It may be a grain spirit, or it may be made from other plants. It is used inmixed drinks,liqueurs, andtinctures, and also as a householdsolvent.
In the alcoholic drinks industry, congeners are substances produced duringfermentation. These substances include small amounts of chemicals such as occasionally desired alcohols, likepropanol and3-methyl-1-butanol, as well as compounds that are never desired such asacetone,acetaldehyde andglycols. Congeners are responsible for most of the taste and aroma of distilled alcoholic drinks and contribute to the taste of non-distilled drinks.[48] It has been suggested that these substances contribute to the symptoms of ahangover.[49]Tannins are congeners found in wine in the presence of phenolic compounds. Wine tannins add bitterness, have a drying sensation, taste herbaceous, and are often described asastringent. Wine tannins add balance, complexity, structure and make a wine last longer, so they play an important role in theaging of wine.[50]
Top-shelf liquor (or "premium liquor") is a term used in marketing to describe higher-priced alcoholic beverages, typically stored on the top shelves within bars.[51]
Alcohol powder or powdered alcohol or dry alcohol is a product generally made usingmicro-encapsulation. When reconstituted with water, the powder becomes an alcoholic drink.[54]
Awell drink or rail drink is an alcoholic beverage or mixed drink made using the lower-cost liquors stored within easy reach of the bartender in the bar's "speed rail", "speed rack", or "well", a rack or shelf at a lower level than the bar that the bartender uses to prepare drinks.[55][56][57]
Alcohol consumption per person in 2016. Consumption of alcohol is measured in liters of pure alcohol per person aged 15 or older.[58]Aliquor store in the United States. Global sales of alcoholic beverages exceeded $1.5 trillion in 2017.[4]
The average number of people who drink as of 2016[update] was 39% for males and 25% for females (2.4 billion people in total).[5] Females on average drink 0.7 drinks per day while males drink 1.7 drinks per day.[5] The rates of drinking varies significantly in different areas of the world.[5]
Age-standardised prevalence of current drinking for females (A) and males (B) in 2016, in 195 locations[5]
Average standard drinks (10 g of pure ethanol per serving) consumed per day, age-standardised, for females (A) and males (B) in 2016, in 195 locations[5]
Drinking games aregames which involve the consumption of alcoholic beverages and often enduring the subsequentintoxication resulting from them. Evidence of the existence of drinking games dates back to antiquity. Drinking games have been banned at some institutions, particularly colleges and universities.[59]
Acider house is an establishment that sells alcoholiccider for consumption on the premises. Some cider houses also sell cider "to go", for consumption off the premises. A traditional cider house was often little more than a room in afarmhouse orcottage, selling locally fermented cider.
Atiki bar is a themed drinking establishment that serves elaborate cocktails, especiallyrum-based mixed drinks such as theMai Tai andZombie cocktails.[60]Tiki bars are aesthetically defined by theirtiki culture décor which is based upon a romanticized conception of tropical cultures, most commonlyPolynesian.
Atoddy shop is a drinking establishment seen in some parts of India (particularlyKerala) wherepalm toddy, a mildly alcoholic beverage made from the sap of palm trees, is served along with food.
Awine bar is atavern-like business focusing on sellingwine, rather thanliquor orbeer. A typical feature of many wine bars is a wide selection of wines available by the glass. Some wine bars are profiled on wines of a certain type of origin, such asItalian wine orChampagne.[citation needed] While many wine bars are private "stand-alone" establishments, in some cases, wine bars are associated with a specific wine retailer or other outlet of wine, to provide additional marketing for that retailer's wine portfolio. In countries where licensing regulations allow this, some wine bars also sell the wines they serve, and effectively function as a hybrid between awine shop and a wine bar.
Abeer festival is an event at which a variety ofbeers are available for purchase. There may be a theme, for instance beers from a particular area, or a particular brewing style such as winter ales.
Annualwine festivals celebrateviticulture and usually occur after the harvest of the grapes which, in the northern hemisphere, generally falls at the end of September and runs until well into October or later. They are common in mostwine regions around the world and are to be considered in the tradition of other harvest festivals.
Abeer flight of three beers, on a woodenbeer paddle, served by a bar in Brisbane, Australia
Beer tasting is a way to learn more about the history, ingredients, and production of beer, as well as different beer styles, hops, yeast, and beer presentation. A common approach is to analyze the appearance, smell, and taste of the beer, and then make a final judgment on the beer's quality. There are various scales used by beer journalists and experts to rate beer, such as the 1-20 scale used by British sommelier Jancis Robinson and the 1-100 scale used by American sommelier Joshua M. Bernstein. Professional organizations like the Wine & Spirit Education Trust often rate beer using verbal grades ranging from "faulty" to "outstanding" on a 1-5 scale.
Wine tasting, on the other hand, is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. While the practice of wine tasting is ancient, a more formalized methodology has been established since the 14th century. Modern, professional wine tasters use specialized terminology to describe the range of perceived flavors, aromas, and general characteristics of a wine. More informal, recreational tasting may involve similar terminology, but with a less analytical process and a more general, personal appreciation of the wine.
Craft beer tourism refers to tourism where the primary motivation of travel is to visit a brewery,beer festival, beer related activity or other event that allows attendees to experience all aspects of the craft beer-making, consuming and purchasing process.[61]
Enotourism, oenotourism, wine tourism, orvinitourism refers totourism whose purpose is or includes the tasting, consumption or purchase ofwine, often at or near the source. Where other types of tourism are often passive in nature, enotourism can consist of visits to wineries,tasting wines, vineyard walks, or even taking an active part in the harvest.
Anapéritif is any alcoholic beverage usually served before a meal to stimulate theappetite,[62] while adigestif is any alcoholic beverage served after a meal for the stated purpose of improving digestion.Fortified wine,liqueurs, anddry champagne are common apéritifs. Because apéritifs are served before dining, they are usually dry rather than sweet. One example isCinzano, a brand ofvermouth. Digestifs include brandy, fortified wines and herb-infused spirits (Drambuie).
Reduction of red wine for a sauce by cooking it on a stovetop. It is called a reduction because the heat boils off some of the water and most of the more volatile alcohol, leaving a more concentrated, wine-flavoured sauce.
Pure ethanol tastesbitter to humans; some people also describe it as sweet.[63] However, ethanol is also a moderately effectivesolvent for many fatty substances and essential oils. This facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic drinks as a taste mask, especially indistilled drinks. Some flavors may be naturally present in the beverage's raw material. Beer and wine may also be flavored before fermentation, and spirits may be flavored before, during, or after distillation. Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually made of American or French oak. A few brands of spirits may also have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle at the time of bottling.
Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as an accompanying beverage, but as a flavor agent, primarily instocks andbraising, since its acidity lends balance to richsavory orsweet dishes.[64]Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient.[65] Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16%ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range.[66]Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.
Wine and food matching is the process of pairingfood dishes withwine to enhance the dining experience. In many cultures, wine has had a long history of being astaple at the dinner table and in some ways both thewinemaking andculinary traditions of a region will have evolved together over the years. Rather than following a set of rules, local cuisines were paired simply with local wines. The modern "art" of food pairings is a relatively recent phenomenon, fostering an industry of books and media with guidelines for pairings of particular foods and wine. In therestaurant industry,sommeliers are often present to make food pairing recommendations for the guest. The main concept behind pairings is that certain elements (such as texture and flavor) in both food and wine interact with each other, and thus finding the right combination of these elements will make the entire dining experience more enjoyable. However,taste and enjoyment are verysubjective and what may be a "textbook perfect" pairing for one taster could be less enjoyable to another.[72]
Alibation is aritual pouring of a liquid, or grains such as rice, as anoffering to adeity or spirit, or inmemory of the dead. It was common in manyreligions ofantiquity and continues to be offered in cultures today.Wine or other alcoholic drinks are often used for libation.
Prayers and libations made withgin, in a community in southernBenin
Libation was part ofancient Egyptian society where it was a drink offering to honor and please the various divinities, sacred ancestors, humans present and humans who are alive but not physically present, as well as the environment.[78] It is suggested that libation originated somewhere in the upper Nile Valley and spread out to other regions of Africa and the world.[79][80] According toAyi Kwei Armah, "[t]his legend explains the rise of a propitiatory custom found everywhere on the African continent: libation, the pouring of alcohol or other drinks as offerings to ancestors and divinities."[81]
In theQuechua andAymara cultures of the South AmericanAndes, it is common to pour a small amount of one's beverage on the ground before drinking as an offering to thePachamama, or Mother Earth. This especially holds true when drinkingChicha, an alcoholic beverage unique to this part of the world. The libation ritual is commonly calledchalla and is performed quite often, usually before meals and during celebrations. The sixteenth century writerBernardino de Sahagún records the Aztec ceremony associated with drinkingoctli:
Libation was done in this manner: whenoctli was drunk, when they tasted the newoctli, when someone had just madeoctli...he summoned people. He set it out in a vessel before the hearth, along with small cups for drinking. Before having anyone drink, he took upoctli with a cup and then poured it before the hearth; he poured theoctli in the four directions. And when he had poured theoctli then everyone drank it.[82]
The amount ofsacramental wine consumed during theEucharist is typically limited to a single sip or small portion, which does not result in a measurable increase in the participant'sblood alcohol content. This controlled and symbolic consumption of the sacramental wine is an integral part of the Eucharistic rite and does not lead to intoxication.
289. What are the visible elements in the Sacrament?
The visible elements are bread and wine.
935. Matt. 26:26-27 Jesus took bread … Then He took the cup.
Note: “The fruit of the vine” (Luke 22:18) in the Bible means wine, not grape juice. See also 1 Cor. 11:21[84]
SomeEvangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) congregations make grape juice available for children and those who are abstaining from alcohol and some will accommodate those with an allergy to wheat, gluten, or grapes.[85]
Atincture is typically anextract of plant or animal materialdissolved inethanol (ethyl alcohol).Solvent concentrations of 25–60% are common, but may run as high as 90%.[86] Inchemistry, a tincture is asolution that has ethanol as its solvent. Inherbal medicine, alcoholic tinctures are made with various ethanol concentrations, which should be at least 20% alcohol for preservation purposes.[86][87]
Alcohol measurements are units of measurement for determining amounts of beverage alcohol. Alcohol concentration in beverages is commonly expressed asalcohol by volume (ABV), ranging from less than 0.1% in fruit juices to up to 98% in rare cases of spirits. Astandard drink is used globally to quantify alcohol intake, though its definition varies widely by country. Serving sizes of alcoholic beverages also vary by country.
Alcohol laws regulate the manufacture, packaging, labelling, distribution, sale, consumption, blood alcohol content of motor vehicle drivers, open containers, and transportation of alcoholic drinks. Such laws generally seek to reduce the adverse health and social impacts of alcohol consumption. In particular, alcohol laws set thelegal drinking age, which usually varies between 15 and 21 years old, sometimes depending upon the type of alcoholic drink (e.g., beer vs wine vs hard liquor or distillates). Some countries do not have a legal drinking or purchasing age, but most countries set the minimum age at 18 years.[2]
Some countries, such as the U.S., have the drinking age higher than the legal age of majority (18), at age 21 in all 50 states. Such laws may take the form of permitting distribution only to licensed stores,monopoly stores, orpubs and they are often combined with taxation, which serves to reduce the demand for alcohol (by raising its price) and it is a form of revenue for governments. These laws also often limit the hours or days (e.g., "blue laws") on which alcohol may be sold or served, as can also be seen in the "last call" ritual in US and Canadian bars, where bartenders and servers ask patrons to place their last orders for alcohol, due to serving hour cutoff laws. In some countries, alcohol cannot be sold to a person who is already intoxicated. Alcohol laws in many countries prohibitdrunk driving.
Wine fraud relates to the commercial aspects of wine. The most prevalent type offraud is one wherewines are adulterated, usually with the addition of cheaper products (e.g. juices) and sometimes with harmfulchemicals and sweeteners (compensating for color or flavor).
Moonshine is illegal to produce and sell in most countries. In Prohibition-era United States, moonshine distillation was done at night to deter discovery.[90] Once the liquor was distilled, drivers called "runners" or "bootleggers" smuggled moonshine liquor across the region in cars specially modified for speed and load-carrying capacity.[91]
In Australia, asly-grog shop (or shanty) is an unlicensedhotel,liquor-store or other vendor of alcoholic beverages, sometimes with the added connotation of selling poor-quality products.[93]
Most countries have laws specifically for the offense ofdrunk driving. Driving under the influence (DUI) or driving while intoxicated (DWI), is the crime of driving a motor vehicle while impaired by alcohol or other drugs (including those prescribed by physicians).[95]
Alcohol is a commonmetabolic by-product formed during the breakdown of sugars in manyliving cells, though it is typically further metabolised to release additional energy.[97] Certain yeasts constitute an exception, as they excrete alcohol into their environment, where it acts as a chemical defense against competingmicroorganisms; this role is analogous to that oflactic acid in fermented foods andaromatic compounds in plants.[97] While advantageous to yeast, alcohol is toxic to most cells, and in humans its intoxicating effects result from interference with the normal functioning ofbrain cells.[97]
Alcohol is adepressant, which in low doses causeseuphoria, reducesanxiety, and increases sociability. In higher doses, it causesdrunkenness,stupor,unconsciousness, ordeath. A meta analysis of 107 cohort studies concludes low daily alcohol intake provides no health benefits and increased consumption, even at relatively low levels of daily intake (>2 beverages for women and >3 beverages for men), increases health- and mortality-risks.[98][99]
Intervention alcohol warning labels (actual size 5.0 cm × 3.2 cm each). The label intervention included three rotating labels: (a) a cancer warning, (b) national drinking guidelines, and (c) standard drink information (four separate labels were developed for wine, spirits, coolers, and beer; wine example shown above)
TheInternational Agency for Research on Cancer lists ethanol as acarcinogen and states that: "There is sufficient evidence and research showing the carcinogenicity ofacetaldehyde (the major metabolite of ethanol) which is excreted by the liver enzyme when one drinks alcohol."[104] TheWorld Health Organization also considers alcohol to be a carcinogen with no quantity of consumption considered to be risk free.[105] WHO estimates nearly half ofalcohol-attributable cancers in theWHO European Region are linked to light or moderate drinking defined as "less than 1.5 litres of wine or less than 3.5 litres of beer or less than 450 millilitres of spirits per week".[105]
Public awareness of the link between alcohol consumption and cancer is alarmingly low in the U.S.[106] Dr. Vivek Murthy, the U.S. Surgeon General asked for Cancer Warnings on Alcohol.[107]
^Henry, Yeomans (18 June 2014).Alcohol and Moral Regulation: Public Attitudes, Spirited Measures and Victorian Hangovers. Policy Press. p. 244.ISBN978-1-4473-0994-9.
^Patrick, Clarence Hodges (1952).Alcohol, Culture, and Society. Durham, NC: Duke University Press (reprint edition by AMS Press, New York, 1970). pp. 26–27.ISBN978-0-404-04906-5.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Rosso AM (2012). "Beer and wine in antiquity: beneficial remedy or punishment imposed by the Gods?".Acta medico-historica Adriatica.10 (2):237–262.PMID23560753.
^abcdefGately, Iain (2009).Drink: a cultural history of alcohol (1. ed., 1. paperback print ed.). New York, NY: Gotham Books. pp. 4–5.ISBN978-1-59240-464-3.
^abcdefgGately, Iain (2009).Drink: a cultural history of alcohol (1. ed., 1. paperback print ed.). New York, NY: Gotham Books. pp. 5–6.ISBN978-1-59240-464-3.
^abcdeGately, Iain (2009).Drink: a cultural history of alcohol (1. ed., 1. paperback print ed.). New York, NY: Gotham Books. pp. 7–8.ISBN978-1-59240-464-3.
^al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. (2009). "Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources from the 8th Century".Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag. pp. 283–298. (same content also available onthe author's websiteArchived 29 December 2015 at theWayback Machine); cf.Berthelot, Marcellin; Houdas, Octave V. (1893).La Chimie au Moyen Âge. Vol. I–III. Paris: Imprimerie nationale. vol. I, pp. 141, 143.
^Garrison, James Holley (1954). "Introduction to Part I". In Merrill, Walter McIntosh (ed.).Behold Me Once More. The Confessions of James Holley Garrison, brother ofWilliam Lloyd Garrison. Boston:Houghton, Mifflin. p. 4.
^Edman, Johan (September 2015), "Temperance and Modernity: Alcohol Consumption as a Collective Problem, 1885–1913",Journal of Social History,49 (1):20–52,doi:10.1093/jsh/shv029
^Lai A, ed. (2005).Bartending 101: The Basics of Mixology.Harvard Student Agencies, Inc. (4th ed.).St. Martin's Press. pp. 7–9.ISBN978-0-312-34906-6.In professional bars, a 'speed rail' usually replaces the front bar. This rack, attached to the bar or sink directly in front of the bartender, holds 'house brands' (usually less-expensive brands) of front-bar liquor. The bartender defers to the well brand of liquor for every drink unless the customer specifies a well-known brand, or 'call brand,' as it is known in bartending lingo. The more expensive call brands stay on the back bar. That means that you will prepare a White Russian with generic coffee brandy instead of the most commonly known call brand (Kahlúa) unless the drink specifically requests otherwise (or if your bar is using Kahlúa as its well brand). There is a further classification of alcohols called the 'premium' or 'top-shelf' brands. These are even higher quality bottles of liquor – such as Bombay gin or Old Grand Dad bourbon.
^Kulp K (2014).Booze for Babes: The Smart Woman's Guide to Drinking Spirits Right. Hundred Proof Publishing Co. p. 113.ISBN978-0-9857731-0-6.Rail liquors are the selection of bottles bartenders keep in the long shelf under the bar counter, called the rail. These bottles are usually the cheapest liquor they carry, and are often used automatically unless you, or the cocktail menu, specify otherwise.
^Araujo Peña, Sandra Alejandro; Barbosa Ramírez Marisela; Galván Falcón Susana; García Ortiz Aurea; Uribe Ordaz Carlos."El culto a la Santa Muerte: un estudio descriptivo" [The Santa Muerte Cult:A descriptive study].Revista Psichologia (in Spanish). Mexico City: Universidad de Londres. Retrieved7 October 2009.
^Villarreal, Hector (5 April 2009)."La Guerra Santa de la Santa Muerte" [The Holy War of Santa Muerte].Milenio semana (in Spanish). Mexico City: Milenio. Archived fromthe original on 16 October 2009. Retrieved7 October 2009.
^James, George G. M. (1954).Stolen Legacy. New York: Philosophical Library.
^Armah, Ayi Kwei (2006).The Eloquence of the Scribes: a memoir on the sources and resources of African literature. Popenguine, Senegal: Per Ankh. p. 207.
^Sahagún, Bernardino de; Nicholson, Henry B. (23 March 1997).Primeros Memoriales. University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN9780806129099 – via Google Books.
^Feige B, Scaal S, Hornyak M, Gann H, Riemann D (January 2007). "Sleep electroencephalographic spectral power after withdrawal from alcohol in alcohol-dependent patients".Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research.31 (1):19–27.doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00260.x.PMID17207097.
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