Recommendations for consumption of the drugalcohol (also known formally as ethanol) vary from recommendations to be alcohol-free to daily or weekly drinking "safe limits" or maximum intakes. Many governmental agencies and organizations have issued guidelines. These recommendations concerning maximum intake are distinct from any legal restrictions, for examplecountries with drunk driving laws orcountries that have prohibited alcohol. To varying degrees, these recommendations are also distinct from the scientific evidence, such as theshort-term andlong-term effects of alcohol consumption.[1] From a scientific and medical standpoint, theWorld Health Organization recommendation isteetotalism, with this being published inThe Lancet in April 2023:"there is no safe amount [of alcohol] that does not affect health".[2]
Share of over-fifteen-year-old population who haven't drunk alcohol in the past year (interactive version); in most countries, it exceeds a third.
TheWorld Health Organization published a statement inThe Lancet Public Health in April 2023 that "there is no safe amount that does not affect health".[2]
TheWorld Heart Federation (recognized by the World Health Organization as its leading NGO partner) (2022) recommends against any alcohol intake for optimal heart health.[3][4]
The 2023 Nordic Nutrition Recommendations state "Since no safe limit for alcohol consumption can be provided, the recommendation in NNR2023 is that everyone should avoid drinking alcohol."[5]
Alcohol consumption per person in 2020. Consumption of alcohol is measured in liters of pure alcohol per person aged 15 or older.[8]
Some governments set the same recommendation for both sexes, while others give separate limits. The guidelines give drink amounts in a variety of formats, such as standard drinks, fluid ounces, or milliliters, but have been converted to grams of ethanol for ease of comparison.
Approximately one-third of all countries advocate for complete alcohol abstinence, while all nations impose upper limits on alcohol consumption. Their daily limits range from 10-48 g per day for both men women, and weekly limits range from 27-196 g/week for men and 27-140 g/week for women. The weekly limits are lower than the daily limits, meaning intake on a particular day may be higher than one-seventh of the weekly amount, but consumption on other days of the week should be lower. The limits for women are often but not always lower than those for men.
"Not drinking has benefits, such as better health, and better sleep."[11]
40.35 g with no more than 5 drinking days per week per the federal government
26.9 g with no more than 5 drinking days per week per the federal government
27 g, CCSUA; 201.75g, federal government
27 g, CCSUA; 134.5g, federal government
53.8 g on special occasions per the federal government
40.35 g on special occasions per the federal government
TheCanadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction has a sliding scale of intakes. The scale states that at 27 g or less per week, "you are likely to avoid alcohol-related consequences for yourself or others".[11] However, the Canadian Government has not officially adopted the Centre's recommendations and the 2011 guidelines remain federal policy.[12][13]
Recommends an alcohol consumption level of zero grams.
10 g
"TheHealth Council of the Netherlands included a guideline for alcohol consumption in the Dutch dietary guidelines 2015 (DDG-2015), which is as follows: 'Don't drink alcohol or no more than one glass daily'." "In the Netherlands, one regular glass of an alcoholic beverage contains approximately 10 grammes (12 millilitre) alcohol."[22]
New Zealand
30 g
20 g
150 g
100 g
50 g
40 g
At least two alcohol-free days every week. 30 g for men, 20 g for womenTo reduce long-term health risks[23] 50 g for men, 40 g for womenOn any single occasion, to reduce risk of injury.[23]
Also suggests a maximum of no more than twice this on any one occasion.[26]
Sweden
"Not possible to specify a limit for risk-free alcohol consumption."[27]
48 g
120 g
TheNational Board of Health and Welfare defines risky consumption as 10 (Swedish) standard drinks per week (120 g), and 4 standard drinks (48 g) or more per occasion, once per month or more often. Alcoholintervention is offered for people who exceed these recommendations.[27]
^abc"The Committee recommended that adults limit alcohol intake to no more than 1 drink per day for both women and men for better health)"[34] "For those who choose to drink, intakes should be limited to 1 drink or less in a day for women and 2 drinks or less in a day for men, on days when alcohol is consumed."[31] "Alcohol has been found to increase risk for cancer, and for some types of cancer, the risk increases even at low levels of alcohol consumption (less than 1 drink in a day). Caution, therefore, is recommended."[31] "Drinking less is better for health than drinking more."[31]
Emerging evidence suggests that "even drinking within the recommended limits may increase the overall risk of death from various causes,such as from several types of cancer". It is not clear that alcohol has any beneficial effects,[35] as the better health outcomes that some studies reported may be due not to alcohol consumption itself but instead be caused by "other differences in behaviors or genetics between people who drink moderately and people who don't".[36] At 20 g/day (1 large beer), the risk of developing an alcohol use disorder (AUD) is nearly 3 times higher than non-drinkers, and the risk of dying from an AUD is about 2 times higher than non-drinkers.[37] One systematic analysis found that "The level of alcohol consumption that minimised harm across health outcomes was zero (95% UI 0·0–0·8) standard drinks per week".[38] Supposing the apparent beneficial effects found in observational studies are genuine, these effects are maximized at relatively low levels of consumption, ranging from 1-18 g/day depending on age, location, and gender.[39]
Excessive drinking during pregnancy, especially in the first eight to twelve weeks, is associated withfetal alcohol spectrum disorders such as abnormal appearance and behavioral problems. Most guidelines state that no safe amount of alcohol consumption has been established and recommend that pregnant women abstain entirely from alcohol.[40][41] As there may be some weeks between conception and confirmation of pregnancy, most guidelines also recommend that women trying or likely to become pregnant should avoid alcohol as well.
Australia: Total abstinence during pregnancy and if planning a pregnancy[42][43]
Canada: "Don't drink if you are pregnant or planning to become pregnant."[44]
Moderate alcohol consumption by breastfeeding mothers can significantly affect infants. Even one or two drinks, including beer, may reduce milk intake by 20 to 23%, leading to increased agitation and poor sleep patterns. Regular heavy drinking (more than two drinks daily) can shorten breastfeeding duration and cause issues in infants, such as excessive sedation, fluid retention, and hormonal imbalances. Additionally, higher alcohol consumption may negatively impact children'sacademic achievement.[52]
Canada: "When breastfeeding, not drinking alcohol is safest."[11]
Hong Kong: "Avoid alcohol and alcoholic drinks."[53]
Iceland: Total abstinence advised because no safe consumption level exists.
New Zealand: Abstinence recommended, especially in the first month of breastfeeding so that sound breastfeeding patterns can be established.[47]
United Kingdom: Total abstinence advised by some, such as theRoyal College of Midwives; others advise to limit alcohol to occasional use in small amounts not exceeding the recommended maximums for non-breastfeeding woman as this is known to cause harm, and that daily or binge drinking be avoided.[54]
Countries have different recommendations concerning the administration of alcohol to minors by adults.
United Kingdom: An alcohol-free childhood is the healthiest option.[55] Children aged under 15 should never be given alcohol, even in small quantities. Children aged 15–17 should not be given alcohol on more than one day a week – and then only under supervision from carers or parents.[56][57][58]
Singapore: A recurring message of theGet Your Sexy Back campaign is that consuming 5 or more units of alcohol (70 g pure ethanol) at a single sitting constitutesbinge drinking.[59]
USA: According to the 2020-2025Dietary Guidelines for Americans, alcohol consumption is not recommended for certain individuals. Specifically, those who are in recovery from Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) or struggle to limit their alcohol intake should abstain from drinking entirely.[30]
The recommended limits for daily or weekly consumption provided in the various countries' guidelines generally apply to the average healthy adult. However, many guidelines also set out numerous conditions under which alcohol intake should be further restricted or eliminated. They may stipulate that, among other things, people with liver, kidney, or other chronic disease,cancer risk factors, smaller body size, young or advanced age, those who have experienced issues with mental health, sleep disturbances, alcohol or drug dependency or who have a close family member who has, or who are taking medication that may interact with alcohol,[60] or suffering or recovering from an illness or accident, are urged to consider, in consultation with their health professionals, a different level of alcohol use, including reduction or abstention.
Furthermore, the maximum amounts allowed do not apply to those involved with activities such as operating vehicles or machinery, risky sports or other activities, or those responsible for the safety of others.[61][62][63]
Moreover, studies suggest even moderate alcohol consumption may significantly impair –neurobiologically beneficial and -demanding – exercise (possibly including the recovery and adaptation).[64][65][66][67]
As of 2022, moderate consumption levels of alcoholic beverages are typically defined in terms of average consumption per day or week. However, drinking pattern (i.e. frequency, timing and dosage/intensity) is also significant.[36] Although countries definebinge drinking in different ways, the consensus recommendation is to avoid any form of binge drinking pattern, in addition to not exceeding the daily or weekly limit.[68] Studies analyzing binge drinking have consistently found negative effects. Although there are few studies or guidelines on moderate consumption patterns,[69] the general advice is that one should spread out consumption as evenly as possible, if one is consuming a fixed amount.[29]
However, it is also easy, when drinking daily, to become habituated to alcohol's effects (consumption-induced tolerance).[70] Most people cannot accurately judge how much alcohol they are consuming,[71] particularly relative to the amounts specified in guidelines. Alcohol-free days provide a baseline and help people cut down on problematic drinking.[29] One review showed that among drinkers (not limited to moderate consumption levels), daily drinking in comparison to non-daily drinking was associated with incidence ofliver cirrhosis.[72]
Polymeal and most versions of theMediterranean diet recommend a moderate amount ofred wine, such as 150 mL (about one glass) every day, in combination with other several food items. Since about 2016, theAmerican Heart Association andAmerican Diabetes Association have recommended the Mediterranean diet as a healthy dietary pattern that may reduce the risk ofcardiovascular diseases andtype 2 diabetes, respectively.[73][74][75][76] TheUnited Kingdom'sNational Health Service also recommends a Mediterranean diet to reduce cardiovascular disease risk.[77][78] The WHO has stated that there is currently no conclusive evidence that the potential benefits of moderate alcohol consumption for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes outweigh the increased cancer risk associated with these drinking levels for individual consumers.[79] A trial in Spain is expected to complete in 2028.[80]
Guidelines generally give recommended amounts measured in grams (g) of pure alcohol per day or week. Some guidelines also express alcohol intake instandard drinks orunits of alcohol. The size of a standard drink varies widely among the various guidelines, from 8g to 20g, as does the recommended number of standard drinks per day or week.[28][81] The standard drink size is not meant as recommendations for how much alcohol a drink should contain, but rather to give a common reference that people can use for measuring their intake, though they may or may not correspond to a typical serving size in their country.[82]
^Mechanick, Jeffrey I.; Kushner, Robert F. (21 April 2016).Lifestyle Medicine: A Manual for Clinical Practice.Springer Science. p. 153.ISBN978-3-319-24687-1.However, even light alcohol use (≤1 drink daily) increases the risk of developing cancer, and heavier use (≥2-4 drinks daily) significantly increases morbidity and mortality. Given these and other risks, the American Heart Association cautions that, if they do not already drink alcohol, people should not start drinking for the purported cardiovascular benefits of alcohol.
^Deedwania, Prakash (12 January 2015)."Alcohol and Heart Health". American Heart Association (AHA). Archived fromthe original on 21 January 2016. Retrieved4 August 2016.
^Barnes, Matthew. J.; Mündel, Toby; Stannard, Stephen. R. (1 January 2010). "Acute alcohol consumption aggravates the decline in muscle performance following strenuous eccentric exercise".Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport.13 (1):189–193.doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2008.12.627.ISSN1440-2440.PMID19230764.
