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Albania in the Middle Ages was a period during theEuropean Middle Ages when theRoman Empire divided into east and west in 395, the territories of modern Albania became a part of theByzantine Empire. At the end of the 12th century, thePrincipality of Arbanon was formed which lasted until mid-13th century, after its dissolution it was followed with the creation of theAlbanian Kingdom after an alliance between theAlbanian noblemen and Angevin dynasty. After a war against theByzantine Empire led the kingdom occasionally decrease in size until the Angevins eventually lost their rule in Albania and led the territory ruled by several different Albanian chieftains until the mid-14th century which for a short period of time were conquered by the short-lived empire of Serbia. After its fall in 1355 several chieftains regained their rule and significantly expanded until the arrival of the Ottomans after theBattle of Savra.
After theBattle of Savra in 1385 most of local chieftains becameOttoman vassals. In 1415–1417 most of the central and southern Albania was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire and its newly establishedSanjak of Albania. In 1432-36 local Albanian chieftains dissatisfied with losing their pre-Ottoman privileges organized arevolt in southern Albania. The revolt was suppressed until another revolt was organized bySkanderbeg in 1443, after the Ottoman defeat in theBattle of Niš, during theCrusade of Varna. In 1444,Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg was proclaimed as the leader of the regionalAlbanian chieftains and nobles united against the Ottoman Empire in theLeague of Lezhë disestablished in 1479. Skanderbeg's rebellion against the Ottoman Empire lasted for 25 years. Despite his military valor he was not able to do more than to hold his own possessions within the very small area in the North Albania where almost all his victories against the Ottomans took place. By 1479 the Ottomans captured all Venetian possessions, except Durazzo which they captured in 1501. Until 1913 the territory of Albania would remain part of the Ottoman Empire.
TheKomani-Kruja culture is an archaeological culture attested from late antiquity to the Middle Ages in central and northern Albania, southern Montenegro and similar sites in the western parts ofNorth Macedonia. It consists of settlements usually built below hillforts along theLezhë (Praevalitana)-Dardania andVia Egnatia road networks which connected the Adriatic coastline with the central Balkan Roman provinces. Itstype site is Komani and its fort on the nearby Dalmace hill in the Drin river valley.Kruja and Lezha represent significant sites of the culture. The population of Komani-Kruja represents a local, western Balkan people which was linked to the Roman Justinianic military system of forts. The development of Komani-Kruja is significant for the study of the transition between theclassical antiquity population of Albania to the medieval Albanians who were attested in historical records in the 11th century.
Research greatly expanded after 2009 and the first survey of Komani's topography was produced in 2014. Until then, except for the area of the cemetery the size of the settlement and its extension remained unknown. In 2014, it was revealed that Komani occupied an area of more than 40 ha, a much larger territory than originally thought. Its oldest settlement phase dates to the Hellenistic era.[1] Proper development began in the late antiquity and continued well into the Middle Ages (13th-14th centuries). It indicates that Komani was a late Roman fort and an important trading node in the networks of Praevalitana and Dardania. Participation in trade networks of the eastern Mediterranean via sea routes seems to have been very limited even in nearby coastal territory in this era.[2] In the Avar-Slavic raids, communities from present-day northern Albania and nearby areas clustered around hill sites for better protection as is the case of other areas like Lezha and Sarda. During the 7th century as Byzantine authority was reestablished after the Avar-Slavic raids and the prosperity of the settlements increased, Komani saw increase in population and a new elite began to take shape. Increase in population and wealth was marked by the establishment of new settlements and new churches in their vicinity. Komani formed a local network with Lezha and Kruja and in turn this network was integrated in the wider Byzantine Mediterranean world, maintained contacts with the northern Balkans and engaged in long-distance trade.[3]
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Arbanon was an autonomous principality that existed between the late 12th century and the 1250s. Throughout its existence, the principality was an autonomous dependency of its neighbouring powers, first Byzantium and, after theFourth Crusade,Epirus, while it also maintained close relations withSerbia.[4] Arbanon extended over the modern districts of central Albania, with the capital atKruja,[5] and it did not have direct access to the sea.[6]Progon was the first ruler, believed to have ruled in ca. 1190. He was succeeded by his sonsGjin (r. c. 1200–08) andDimitri (r. 1208–16). After this dynasty, the principality came under Greek lordGregory Kamonas[7] and then his son-in-lawGolem.[8] Dimitri's widow, Serbian princessKomnena Nemanjić, had inherited the rule[9] and remarried Kamonas.[7] Arbanon declined after a rebellion against Nicaea in favour of Epirus in 1257–58.
After the fall of thePrincipality of Arber in its territories and in territories captured by theDespotate of Epiros was created theKingdom of Albania, which was established byCharles of Anjou. He took the title of King ofAlbania in February, 1272. The kingdom extended fromDurazzo (modern Durrës) south along the coast toCape Linguetta, with vaguely defined borders in the interior. AByzantine counter-offensive soon ensued, which drove theAngevins out of the interior by 1281. TheSicilian Vespers further weakened the position of Charles, and the Kingdom was soon reduced by theEpirotes to a small area around Durrës. The Angevins held out here, however, until 1368, when the city was captured byKarl Thopia.
After the fall of thePrincipality of Arber in territories captured by theDespotate of Epirus, theKingdom of Albania was established byCharles of Anjou. He took the title of King ofAlbania in February 1272. The kingdom extended from the region of Durrës (then known as Dyrrhachium) south along the coast to Butrint. After the failure of the Eighth Crusade, Charles of Anjou returned his attention to Albania. He began contacting local Albanian leaders through local catholic clergy. Two local Catholic priests, namely John from Durrës and Nicola from Arbanon, acted as negotiators between Charles of Anjou and the local noblemen. During 1271 they made several trips between Albania and Italy eventually succeeding in their mission.[10]
On 21 February 1272, a delegation of Albanian noblemen and citizens from Durrës made their way to Charles' court. Charles signed a treaty with them and was proclaimed King of Albania "by common consent of the bishops, counts, barons, soldiers and citizens" promising to protect them and to honor the privileges they had from Byzantine Empire.[11] The treaty declared the union between the Kingdom of Albania (Latin:Regnum Albanie) with the Kingdom of Sicily under King Charles of Anjou (Carolus I, dei gratia rex Siciliae et Albaniae).[10] He appointed Gazzo Chinardo as his Vicar-General and hoped to take up his expedition against Constantinople again. Throughout 1272 and 1273 he sent huge provisions to the towns of Durrës and Vlorë. This alarmed the Byzantine Emperor, Michael VIII Palaiologos, who began sending letters to local Albanian nobles, trying to convince them to stop their support for Charles of Anjou and to switch sides. However, the Albanian nobles placed their trust on Charles, who praised them for their loyalty. But Charles of Anjou imposed a military rule on Kingdom of Albania.
Throughout its existence the Kingdom saw armed conflict with the Byzantine empire. By 1282 the Angevins were weakened by the Sicilian Vespers but held control of the nominal parts of Albania and even recaptured some and held out until 1368 when the kingdom's territory was reduced to a small area in Durrës. Even before the city of Durrës was captured, it was landlocked by Karl Thopia's principality. Declaring himself as Angevin descendant, with the capture ofDurrës in 1368Karl Thopia created thePrincedom of Albania. During its existence Catholicism saw rapid spread among the population which affected the society as well as the architecture of the Kingdom.AWestern type of feudalism was introduced and it replaced the ByzantinePronoia.
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The 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century was the period in which sovereign principalities were created in Albania under Albanian noblemen. Those principalities were created between the fall of theSerbian Empire and the Ottoman invasion of Albania.
In the summer of 1358,Nikephoros II Orsini, the lastdespot of Epirus of the Orsini dynasty, fought against the Albanian chieftains inAcheloos,Acarnania. The Albanian chieftains won the war and they managed to create two new states in the southern territories of the Despotate of Epirus. Because a number of Albanian lords actively supported the successfulSerbian campaign in Thessaly and Epirus, the SerbianTsar granted them specific regions and offered them the Byzantine title of despotes in order to secure their loyalty.
The two Albanian lead states were: the first with its capital inArta was under the Albanian noblemanPjetër Losha, and the second, centered inAngelokastron, was ruled by Gjin Bua Shpata. After the death of Pjetër Losha in 1374, the AlbanianDespotate of Arta and Angelocastron were united under the rule of DespotGjin Bua Shpata. The territory of this despotate was from theCorinth Gulf toAcheron River in the North, neighboring with thePrincipality ofGjon Zenevisi, another state created in the area of theDespotate of Epirus.
From 1335 until 1432 four main principalities were created in Albania. The first of them was theMuzakaj Principality of Berat, created in 1335 inBerat andMyzeqe. The most powerful was thePrincedom of Albania, formed after the disestablishment ofKingdom of Albania, byKarl Thopia. The principality changed hands between the Thopia dynasty and the Balsha dynasty, until 1392, when it was occupied by theOttoman Empire. WhenSkanderbeg liberatedKruja and reorganised thePrincipality of Kastrioti, the descendant ofGjergj Thopia,Andrea II Thopia, managed to regain control of the Princedom. Finally, it was united with otherAlbanian Principalities forming theLeague of Lezhë in 1444.
Another principality was thePrincipality of Kastrioti, created byGjon Kastrioti, and later captured by theOttoman Empire. Finally, it was liberated by the national hero ofAlbania,Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg. ThePrincipality of Dukagjini extended from the Malësia region toPrishtina in Kosovo.[12]
Under pressure by theOttoman Empire, theAlbanian Principalities were united into a confederation, created in the Assembly of Lezhë on 2 March 1444. The league was led byGjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, and byLekë Dukagjini following his death. Skanderbeg organized a meeting of Albanian nobles: theArianiti,Dukagjini, Spani,Thopias,Muzakas, and the leaders of the free Albanian principalities from high mountains, in the town ofLezhë, where the nobles agreed to fight together for mutual gain against the commonTurkish enemy. They voted Skanderbeg as theirsuzerain chief. TheLeague of Lezhë was a confederation and each principality kept its sovereignty.
In the light of the modern geopolitical science, theLeague of Lezhë represented an attempt to form a state union. In fact, this was a federation of independent rulers who undertook the duty to follow a common foreign policy, to jointly defend their independence and recruit their allied armed forces. Naturally, it required a collective budget for covering the military expenditures; each family contributed their mite to the common funds of the League.
At the same time, each clan kept its possessions and autonomy, to solve internal problems within its own estate. The formation and functioning of the League, of whichGjergj Kastrioti was the supreme feudal lord, was the most significant attempt to build up an all-Albanian resistance against the Ottoman occupation and, simultaneously, an effort to create, for the span of its short-lived functioning, of some sort of a unified Albanian state.Under Skanderbeg's command, the Albanian forces marched east, capturing the cities ofDibra andOhrid. For 25 years, from 1443 – 1468, Skanderbeg's 10,000 men army marched through Ottoman territory, winning victory after victory against the consistently larger and better supplied Ottoman forces. Threatened by Ottoman advances in their homeland,Hungary, and laterNaples andVenice, their former enemies, provided the financial backbone and support for Skanderbeg's army.
On 14 May 1450, an Ottoman army, larger than any previous force encountered by Skanderbeg or his men, stormed and overwhelmed the castle of the city ofKrujë. This city was particularly symbolic to Skanderbeg as he had been previously appointed suba of Krujë in 1438 by the Ottomans. The fighting lasted four months, with an Albanian loss of over 1,000 men and over 20,000 for the Ottomans.[citation needed] The Ottoman forces were unable to capture the city and had no choice but to retreat before winter set in. In June 1446,Mehmed II, known as "the conqueror", led an army of 150,000 soldiers back to Krujë, but failed to capture the castle. Skanderbeg's death in 1468 did not end the struggle for independence, and fighting continued until 1481, underLekë Dukagjini, when Albanian lands were finally forced to succumb to the Ottoman forces.
After the region fell to the Romans in 168 BC it became part ofEpirus Nova that was in turn part of the Roman province ofMacedonia. Later it was part of provinces of theByzantine Empire calledthemes.
When theRoman Empire was divided into East and West in 395, the territories of modern Albania became part of the Byzantine Empire. Beginning in the first decades of Byzantine rule (until 461), the region suffered devastating raids byVisigoths,Huns, andOstrogoths. In the 6th and 7th centuries, the region experienced an influx ofSlavs.
At the time of theSouth Slavic incursion and the threat of ethnic turbulence in the Albanian-inhabited regions, the Christianization of theAlbanians had already been completed and it had apparently developed for Albanians as a further identity-forming feature alongside the ethnic-linguistic unity.[13] Church administration, which was controlled by a thick network of Roman bishoprics, collapsed with the arrival of the Slavs. Between the early 7th century and the late 9th century the interior areas of theBalkans were deprived of church administration, and Christianity might have survived only as a popular tradition on a reduced degree.[14]
The reorganization of the Church as a cult institution in the region took a considerable amount of time.[15] The Balkans were brought back into the Christian orbit only after the recovery of theByzantine Empire and through the activity of Byzantine missionaries.[14] In 726 Leo III establishedde jure the jurisdiction of theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople over the Balkans, as the Church and the State established an institution. The Eastern Church expanded its influence in the area along with the social and political developments. Between the 7th and 12th centuries a powerful network of cult institutions were revived completely covering the ecclesiastical administration of the entire present-day Albanian-speaking compact area. In particular an important role was played by theTheme of Dyrrhachium and theArchdiocese of Ohrid.[16] Survived through the centuries, the Christian belief among Albanians became an important cultural element in their ethnic identity. Indeed, the lack ofOld Church Slavonic terms in Albanian Christian terminology shows that the missionary activities during theChristianization of the Slavs did not involve Albanian-speakers.[17] In a text compiled around the beginning of the 11th century in theOld Bulgarian language, the Albanians are mentioned for the first time with their old ethnonymArbanasi as half-believers, a term which for Eastern Orthodox Christian Bulgarians meant Catholic Christian.[18] TheGreat Schism of 1054 involved Albania separating the region between Catholic Christianity in the north and Orthodox Christianity in the south.[19]
The Albanians appear in medieval Byzantine chronicles in the 11th century, asAlbanoi andArbanitai, and in medieval Latin sources asAlbanenses andArbanenses,[20][21] gradually entering in other European languages, in which other similar derivative names emerged.[22] In later Byzantine usage, the termsArbanitai andAlbanoi, with a range of variants, were used interchangeably, while sometimes the same groups were also called by the classicising nameIllyrians.[23][24][25]
The Albanians, during the Middle Ages, referred to their country asArbëria (Gheg Albanian:Arbënia) and called themselvesArbëreshë (Gheg Albanian:Arbëneshë).[26][27]
In the mid-9th century most of eastern Albania became part of theFirst Bulgarian Empire, during the reign of KhanPresian.[28] The area, known asKutmichevitsa, became an important Bulgarian cultural center in the 10th century with many thriving towns such asDevol, Glavinitsa (Ballsh) and Belgrad (Berat). Coastal towns such asDurrës remained in the hands of the Byzantines for most of that period. When the Byzantines managed to conquer the Bulgarian Empire in 1018–19, the fortresses in eastern Albania were some of the last Bulgarian strongholds to be submitted by the Byzantines. Durrës was one a centre of amajor Bulgarian uprising in 1040–41 following the discontent of the Bulgarian population by the heavy taxes levied by the Byzantines. Soon the rebellion encompassed the whole of Albania, but it was quelled in 1041, after which Albania again came under Byzantine rule. In 1072another uprising broke out underGeorgi Voiteh but it was also crushed.
Later the region was recovered by theSecond Bulgarian Empire. The last Bulgarian Emperor to govern the whole territory wasIvan Asen II (1218–1241) but after his successors the Bulgarian rule diminished.
TheSerbs controlled parts of what is now northern and eastern Albania toward the end of the 12th century. In 1204, after Western crusaders sackedConstantinople, Venice won nominal control over Albania and theEpirus region of northern Greece and took possession ofDurrës. A prince from the overthrown Byzantine ruling family,Michael Comnenus, made alliances with Albanian chiefs and drove the Venetians from lands that now make up southern Albania and northern Greece, and in 1204 he set up an independent principality, theDespotate of Epirus, withIoannina in northwest Greece) as its capital. In 1272 the king ofNaples,Charles I of Anjou, occupied Durrës and formed anAlbanian kingdom that would last for a century. Internal power struggles further weakened theByzantine Empire in the 14th century, enabling Serbian most powerful medieval ruler,Stefan Dusan, to establish a short-lived empire that included all of Albania except Durrës.[29]
In the latter part of the Middle Ages, Albanian urban society reached a high point of development. Foreign commerce flourished to such an extent that leading Albanian merchants had their own agencies in Venice, Ragusa (modernDubrovnik,Croatia), and Thessalonica (nowThessaloniki,Greece). The prosperity of the cities also stimulated the development of education and the arts. Albanian, however, was not the language used in schools, churches, and official government transactions. Instead, Greek and Latin, which had the powerful support of the state and the church, were the official languages of culture and literature.
The new administrative system of the themes, or military provinces created by the Byzantine Empire, contributed to the eventual rise of feudalism in Albania, as peasant soldiers who served military lords became serfs on their landed estates. Among the leading families of the Albanian feudal nobility were theThopia,Shpata,Muzaka,Arianiti,Dukagjini andKastrioti. The first three of these rose to become rulers of principalities that were practically independent from Byzantium.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, the cities of Albania marked a slight but permanent progress. A number of new urban centers appeared around the coasts and river valleys. The Albanian cities were distinguished with development of craftsmanship, in particular the craftsmanship of jewelry, furring, carpentry, construction and gunsmithing. Craftsmanship development also induced internal and foreign trade, particularly with the Italian trade cities and withDubrovnik. The internal trade was developed through the old and new trading routes, influencing positively the significant connections of ethnicAlbanian provinces.
Besides the existing cities, a number of new centers appeared, in the vicinity of rivers and in the river valleys, includingShirgj on the coast of riverBojana, Shufadaja in the valley ofMati, Pirgu and Spinarica in the valley ofSeman river.Durrës was the largest city. It was one of the main centers for trade and politics of the country. In the second half of the 14th century the population of this city was 25,000 inhabitants. In Northern Albania, after Durrës, the second largest wasShkodër, which was surrounded by a number of smaller cities likeBar,Ulcinj,Šas,Balec, Sepa andLezhë.[30]
The main cities in the south wereBerat,Vlorë,Ioannina andPreveza. Following the fall of Durrës, from the beginning of the 15th century, Vlorë was becoming the main center in the Albanian coastline, followed byGjirokastër,Korçë,Bradashesh (near present-dayElbasan) being towns with a relatively small number of population.[30]
Through the 13th and 14th centuries in Albanian cities, a development and specialisation of trade was noticed. A series of factors impacted in this aspect, worth to be mentioned are: increase of population in the cities, the need for craftsmanship products, technical enhancement, the short distance to the mines of iron, lead and silver in SerbianHvosno. The craftsmanship of iron processing was especially widespread in Serbian Hvosno, and afterwards in other cities as well.Agricultural tools were produced, home iron furnishings, nails and in particular weapons used to be produced. 93 Documents of time mention shops and craftsmen of jewelry, tailors, fur tradesmen, bakers, wax craftsmen, carpenters, forgers, gunsmiths, butchers etc.[30]
For good products, the cities would gain goodwill beyond their respective regions. ThusVlorë andUlcinj were famous for production of swords; Shkodër and Ulcinj for casting belfries. In Shkodër and in SerbianPrizren gold and silver was processed for ornaments. They were even produced by craftsmen from the villages of monasteries. Albanian farriers in the region and beyond were distinguished for the original manners of shoe wearing to horses. Foreign countries were seeking stone carvers and bricklayers fromDurrës, carpenters fromBalec etc. From craftsmanship of most advanced wearing products were those of furring, shoemakers and tailors. The tailor used to beautifully decorate clothes, with golden embroiders and lines. As for production and processing of silk Vlorë, Shkodër,Drisht etc. were distinguished. There were potteries, candle makers, bakers and butchers, drink shops and taverns in different cities. In some sea coast cities, salt extraction was very important. At the sea coast several plants existed for construction of ships.[30]
Permanent connections ofPrizren with Dalmatian,Italian andAlbanian coastline cities, not only brought benefits to the city in economic aspect, but they also had their influence on transposing the reciprocal impacts in the field of culture, especially in figurative arts, inmedicine,pharmacy andliterature.[31]
From a general observation of the geographical area, and of the economic and political life, it is found that the primary inter-provincial links in the territories inhabited by Albanians would pursue the horizontal directions (west-east), and three economic zones were formed: Upper Albania, Middle Albania and Lower Albania, which had their own trade route system.[32]
Although most Albanian literature and language is unknown up until the 15th century, we know that Albanian has likely been written beforeKonrad Kyeser in 1402. TheArchbishop ofAntivariGuillaume Adam wrote a report in 1332 in which he said that Albanians usedLatin letters in their books although their language was quite different from theLatin language.
In medieval Albania,Christianity was the most common religion and this remained up until theIslamization of Albania during the period ofOttoman Albania. Thenorthern Albanians adhered toCatholicism, whilst in the south they were followers ofEastern Orthodoxy[33] Many Albanian nobles had made significant religious constructions and contributions, as well as having their own portraits.[34]
Bogomilism, a neo-Gnostic Christian movement started by the 10th-centuryBulgarian priestBogomil, had become increasingly popular, and one of the main followedChristian denominations in medieval Albania up until the 14th-century. A medieval Albanian “Leka” attested around 1070, was one of the leaders of the Bogomil movements inSofia. Bogomilism in Albania was also the cause for the spread of the movement inItaly. In the 13th-century, Bogomils in Northern Italy began referring to their church as the “Albanian Church” (Latin: ecclesia Albanensis).[34]
Albanians of the time period were Christian’s as a result of theChristianization of Albania, but many continued to upholdpagan beliefs todemons, evil spirits,fairies and mythical figures and beings.[34]
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