The historical origins of the term "Albania" can be traced back tomedieval Latin, with its foundations believed to be associated with theIllyrian tribe of theAlbani. This connection gains further support from the work of the Ancient Greek geographerPtolemy during the 2nd century AD, where he included the settlement ofAlbanopolis situated to the northeast ofDurrës.[11][12] The presence of a medieval settlement namedAlbanon or Arbanon hints at the possibility of historical continuity. The precise relationship among these historical references and the question of whether Albanopolis was synonymous with Albanon remain subjects of scholarly debate.[13]
The Byzantine historianMichael Attaliates, in his 11th-century historical account, provides the earliest undisputed reference to the Albanians, when he mentions them having taken part in a revolt againstConstantinople in 1079.[14] He also identifies the Arbanitai as subjects of the Duke ofDyrrachium.[15] In the Middle Ages, Albania was denoted asArbëri orArbëni by its inhabitants, who identified themselves asArbëreshë orArbëneshë.[16] Albanians employ the termsShqipëri orShqipëria for their nation, designations that trace their historical origins to the 14th century.[17] But only in the late 17th and early 18th centuries did these terms gradually supersedeArbëria andArbëreshë among Albanians.[17][18] These two expressions are widely interpreted to symbolise "Children of the Eagles" and "Land of the Eagles".[19][20]
Mesolithic habitation in Albania has been evidenced in several open air sites which during that period were close to the Adriatic coastline and in cave sites. Mesolithic objects found in a cave near Xarrë includeflint andjasper objects along with fossilised animal bones, while those discoveries at Mount Dajt comprise bone and stone tools similar to those of theAurignacian culture.[21] TheNeolithic era in Albania began around 7000 BC and is evidenced in finds which indicate domestication of sheep and goats and small-scale agriculture. A part of the Neolithic population may have been the same as the Mesolithic population of the southern Balkans like in theKonispol cave where the Mesolithic stratum co-exists with Pre-Pottery Neolithic finds.Cardium pottery culture appears in coastal Albania and across the Adriatic after 6500 BC, while the settlements of the interior took part in the processes which formed theStarčevo culture.[22] The Albanianbitumen mines ofSelenicë provide early evidence of bitumen exploitation in Europe, dating to Late Neolithic Albania (from 5000 BC), when local communities used it as pigment for ceramic decoration,waterproofing, andadhesive for reparing broken vessels. The bitumen of Selenicë circulated towards eastern Albania from the early 5th millennium BC. First evidence of its overseas trade export comes from Neolithic and Bronze Age southernItaly. The high-quality bitumen of Selenicë has been exploited throughout all the historical ages since the Late Neolithic era until today.[23]
TheIndo-Europeanisation of Albania in the context of the IE-isation of the western Balkans began after 2800 BC. The presence of the Early Bronze Agetumuli in the vicinity of laterApollonia dates to 2679±174 calBC (2852-2505 calBC). These burial mounds belong to the southern expression of the Adriatic-Ljubljana culture (related to laterCetina culture) which moved southwards along the Adriatic from the northern Balkans. The same community built similar mounds in Montenegro (Rakića Kuće) and northern Albania (Shtoj).[24] The firstarchaeogenetic find related to the IE-isation of Albania involves a man with predominantlyYamnaya ancestry buried in a tumulus of northeastern Albania which dates to 2663–2472 calBC.[25] During the Middle Bronze Age, Cetina culture sites and finds appear in Albania. Cetina culture moved southwards across the Adriatic from theCetina valley ofDalmatia. In Albania, Cetina finds are concentrated around southernLake Shkodër and appear typically in tumulus cemeteries like in Shkrel and Shtoj and hillforts like Gajtan (Shkodër) as well as cave sites like Blaz, Nezir and Keputa (central Albania) and lake basin sites like Sovjan (southeastern Albania).[26]
The IllyrianTaulanti were a powerful Illyrian tribe that were among the earliest recorded tribes in the area. They lived in an area that corresponds much of present-day Albania. Together with the Dardanian rulerCleitus,Glaucias, the ruler of the Taulantian kingdom, fought againstAlexander the Great at theBattle of Pelium in 335 BC. As the time passed, the ruler of Ancient Macedonia,Cassander of Macedon captured Apollonia and crossed the riverGenusus (Albanian:Shkumbin) in 314 BC. A few years later Glaucias laid siege to Apollonia and captured the Greek colony ofEpidamnos.[34]
The IllyrianArdiaei tribe, centred in Montenegro, ruled over most of the territory of northern Albania. TheirArdiaean Kingdom reached its greatest extent underKing Agron, the son ofPleuratus II. Agron extended his rule over other neighbouring tribes as well.[35] Following Agron's death in 230 BC, his wife,Teuta, inherited the Ardiaean kingdom. Teuta's forces extended their operations further southwards to the Ionian Sea.[36] In 229 BC, Rome declared war[37] on the kingdom for extensively plundering Roman ships. The war ended in Illyrian defeat in 227 BC. Teuta was eventually succeeded by Gentius in 181 BC.[38] Gentius clashed with the Romans in 168 BC, initiating theThird Illyrian War. The conflict resulted in Roman conquest of the region by 167 BC. The Romans split the region into three administrative divisions.[39]
TheRoman Empire was split in 395 upon the death ofTheodosius I into anEastern andWestern Roman Empire in part because of the increasing pressure from threats during theBarbarian Invasions. From the 6th century into the 7th century, theSlavs crossed theDanube and largely absorbed the indigenous Greeks, Illyrians and Thracians in theBalkans; thus, the Illyrians were mentioned for the last time in historical records in the 7th century.[40][41]
Towards the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries,Serbs andVenetians started to take possession over the territory.[50] Theethnogenesis of the Albanians is uncertain; however, the first undisputed mention of Albanians dates back in historical records from 1079 or 1080 in a work byMichael Attaliates, who referred to theAlbanoi as having taken part in a revolt againstConstantinople.[51] At this point the Albanians were fully Christianised.
After the dissolution of Arbanon,Charles of Anjou concluded an agreement with the Albanian rulers, promising to protect them and their ancient liberties. In 1272, he established theKingdom of Albania and conquered regions back from theDespotate of Epirus. The kingdom claimed all of central Albania territory fromDyrrhachium along the Adriatic Sea coast down toButrint. A Catholic political structure was a basis for the papal plans of spreadingCatholicism in the Balkan Peninsula. This plan found also the support ofHelen of Anjou, a cousin of Charles of Anjou. Around 30 Catholic churches and monasteries were built during her rule mainly in northern Albania.[52] Internal power struggles within the Byzantine Empire in the 14th century enabled Serbs' most powerful medieval ruler,Stefan Dusan, to establish ashort-lived empire that included all of Albania except Durrës.[50]
With thefall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep intoSoutheast Europe. They reached theAlbanian Ionian Sea Coast in 1385 and erected their garrisons acrossSouthern Albania in 1415 and then occupied most of Albania in 1431.[53][54] Thousands of Albanians consequently fled to Western Europe, particularly toCalabria,Naples,Ragusa andSicily, whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessibleMountains of Albania.[55][56] The Albanians, as Christians, were considered aninferior class of people, and as such they were subjected to heavytaxes among others by theDevshirme system that allowed theSultan to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from their families to compose theJanissary.[57] The Ottoman conquest was also accompanied with the gradual process ofIslamisation and the rapid construction of mosques.
A prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted after the formation of theLeague of Lezhë until thefall of Shkodër under the leadership ofGjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, who consistently defeated major Ottoman armies led bySultansMurad II andMehmed II. Skanderbeg managed to unite several of the Albanian principalities, amongst them theArianitis,Dukagjinis,Zaharias andThopias, and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories, becoming theLord of Albania.[58] The Ottoman Empire's expansion ground to a halt during the time that Skanderbeg's forces resisted, and he has been credited with being one of the main reasons for the delay of Ottoman expansion intoWestern Europe, giving the Italian principalities more time to better prepare for theOttoman arrival.[59] However, the failure of most European nations, with the exception of Naples, in giving him support, along with the failure of Pope Pius II's plans to organise a promised crusade against the Ottomans meant that none of Skanderbeg's victories permanently hindered the Ottomans from invading the Western Balkans.[60][61]
Despite his brilliance as a military leader, Skanderbeg's victories were only delaying the final conquests. The constant Ottoman invasions caused enormous destruction to Albania, greatly reducing the population and destroying flocks of livestock and crops. Besides surrender, there was no possible way Skanderbeg would be able to halt the Ottoman invasions despite his successes against them. His manpower and resources were insufficient, preventing him from expanding the war efforts and driving the Turks from the Albanian borders. Albania was therefore doomed to face an unending series of Ottoman attacks until it eventually fell years after his death.[62]
When the Ottomans were gaining a firm foothold in the region, Albanian towns were organised into four principalsanjaks. The government fostered trade by settling a sizeable Jewish colony of refugees fleeing persecution in Spain. The city ofVlorë saw passing through its ports imported merchandise from Europe such as velvets, cotton goods, mohairs, carpets, spices and leather fromBursa andConstantinople. Some citizens of Vlorë even had business associates throughout Europe.[63]
The phenomenon of Islamisation among the Albanians became primarily widespread from the 17th century and continued into the 18th century.[64] Islam offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire. However, motives for conversion were, according to some scholars, diverse depending on the context though the lack of source material does not help when investigating such issues.[64] Because of increasing suppression of Catholicism, most Catholic Albanians converted in the 17th century, while Orthodox Albanians followed suit mainly in the following century.
Since the Albanians were seen as strategically important, they made up a significant proportion of theOttoman military and bureaucracy. Many Muslim Albanians attained important political and military positions and culturally contributed to the broaderMuslim world.[64] Enjoying this privileged position, they held various high administrative positions with over two dozen AlbanianGrand Viziers. Others included members of the prominentKöprülü family,Zagan Pasha,Muhammad Ali of Egypt andAli Pasha of Tepelena. Furthermore, two sultans,Bayezid II andMehmed III, both had mothers of Albanian origin.[63][65][66]
TheAlbanian Renaissance was a period with its roots in the late 18th century and continuing into the 19th century, during which the Albanian people gathered spiritual and intellectual strength for an independent cultural and political life within anindependent nation. ModernAlbanian culture flourished too, especiallyAlbanian literature andarts, and was frequently linked to the influences of theRomanticism andEnlightenment principles.[68] Prior to therise of nationalism, Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of national unity or conscience by the Albanian people.
The victory of Russia over the Ottoman Empire following theRussian-Ottoman Wars resulted the execution of theTreaty of San Stefano which assigned Albanian-populated lands to their Slavic and Greek neighbours. However, theUnited Kingdom andAustro-Hungarian Empire consequently blocked the arrangement and caused theTreaty of Berlin. From this point, Albanians started to organise themselves with the goal to protect and unite the Albanian-populated lands into a unitary nation, leading to the formation of theLeague of Prizren. The league had initially the assistance of the Ottoman authorities whose position was based on the religious solidarity of Muslim people and landlords connected with theOttoman administration. They favoured and protected the Muslim solidarity and called for defence of Muslim lands simultaneously constituting the reason for titling the leagueCommittee of the Real Muslims.[69]
Ottomans authorities cancelled their assistance when the league, underAbdyl Frashëri, became focused on working towards Albanian autonomy and requested merging fourvilayets, includingKosovo,Shkodër,Monastir andIoannina, into a unified vilayet, theAlbanian Vilayet. The league used military force to prevent the annexing areas ofPlav andGusinje assigned to Montenegro. After several successful battles with Montenegrin troops, such as theBattle of Novšiće, the league was forced to retreat from their contested regions. The league was later defeated by the Ottoman army sent by the sultan.[72]
Headquartered in Vlorë, theInternational Commission of Control was established on 15 October 1913 to take care of the administration of Albania until its own political institutions were in order.[78][79] TheInternational Gendarmerie was established as thePrincipality of Albania's first law enforcement agency. In November, the first gendarmerie members arrived in the country. Prince of AlbaniaWilhelm of Wied(Princ Vilhelm Vidi) was selected as the first prince of the principality.[80] On 7 March, he arrived in the provisional capital ofDurrës and began to organise his government, appointingTurhan Pasha Përmeti to form the first Albanian cabinet.
In November 1913, the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne of Albania to the Ottoman war minister of Albanian origin,Ahmed Izzet Pasha.[81] The pro-Ottoman peasants believed that the new regime was a tool of the six ChristianGreat Powers and local landowners, who owned half of the arable land.[82]
In February 1914, theAutonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was proclaimed inGjirokastër by the localGreek population against incorporation to Albania. This initiative was short-lived, and in 1921 the southern provinces were incorporated into the Albanian Principality.[83][84] Meanwhile, therevolt of Albanian peasants against the new regime erupted under the leadership of the group of Muslim clerics gathered aroundEssad Pasha Toptani, who proclaimed himself the savior of Albania and Islam.[85][86] To gain the support of theMirdita Catholic volunteers from northern Albania, PrinceWied appointed their leader,Prênk Bibë Doda, foreign minister of the Principality of Albania. In May and June 1914, the International Gendarmerie was joined byIsa Boletini and his men, mostly fromKosovo,[87] and the rebels defeated northernMirdita Catholics, capturing most of Central Albania by the end of August 1914.[88] Prince Wied's regime collapsed, and he left the country on 3 September 1914.[89]
Fan Noli played a significant role in the 20th century, advocating for Albanian independence and cultural revival, while also serving asPrime Minister in 1924 and later as the head of theAlbanian Orthodox Church.
Theinterwar period in Albania was marked by persistent economic and social difficulties, political instability and foreign interventions.[90][91] AfterWorld War I, Albania lacked an established government and internationally recognised borders, rendering it vulnerable to neighboring entities such as Greece, Italy, and Yugoslavia, all of which sought to expand their influence.[90] This led to political uncertainty, highlighted in 1918 when theCongress of Durrës soughtParis Peace Conference protection but was denied, further complicating Albania's position on the international stage. Territorial tensions escalated as Yugoslavia, particularly Serbia, sought control of northern Albania, while Greece aimed dominance in southern Albania. The situation deteriorated in 1919 when the Serbs launched attacks on Albanian inhabitants, among others inGusinje andPlav, resulting inmassacres and large-scale displacement.[90][92][93] Meanwhile, Italian influence continued to expand during this time, driven by economic interests and political ambitions.[91][94]
Fan Noli, renowned for hisidealism, became prime minister in 1924, with a vision to institute a Western-style constitutional government, abolish feudalism, counter Italian influence, and enhance critical sectors, including infrastructure, education and healthcare.[90] He faced resistance from former allies, who had assisted in the removal ofZog from power, and struggled to secure foreign aid to implement his agenda. Noli's decision to establish diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union, an adversary of the Serbian elite, ignited allegations ofbolshevism from Belgrade.[90] This in turn led to increased pressure from Italy and culminated in Zog's restoration to authority. In 1928, Zog transitioned Albania from a republic to a monarchy that garnered backing fromFascist Italy, with Zog assuming the title of King Zog I. Key constitutional changes dissolved the Senate and established a unicameral National Assembly while preserving Zog's authoritative powers.[90]
In 1939, Italy underBenito Mussolini launched a military invasion of Albania, resulting to the exile of Zog and the creation of anItalian protectorate.[95][96] AsWorld War II progressed, Italy aimed to expand its territorial dominion in the Balkans, including territorial claims on regions of Greece (Chameria), Macedonia, Montenegro and Kosovo. These ambitions laid the foundation ofGreater Albania, which aimed to unite all areas with Albanian-majority populations into a single country.[97] In 1943, as Italy's control declined,Nazi Germany assumed control of Albania, subjecting Albanians to forced labour, economic exploitation and repression underGerman rule.[98] The tide shifted in 1944 when Albanian partisan forces, under the leadership ofEnver Hoxha and other communist leaders, successfully liberated Albania from German occupation.[99]
Enver Hoxha was the founding leader of communist Albania and its ruler for over four decades, implementing a regime marked byauthoritarianism andisolationism
The establishment of thePeople's Republic of Albania under the leadership ofEnver Hoxha was a significant epoch in modern Albanian history.[100] Hoxha's regime embracedMarxist–Leninist ideologies and implementedauthoritarian policies, including prohibition of religious practices, severe restrictions on travel, and abolition of private property rights.[101] It was also defined by a persistent pattern of purges, extensive repression, instances of betrayal, and hostility to external influences.[101] Any form of opposition or resistance to his rule was met with expeditious and severe consequences, such as internal exile, extended imprisonment, and execution.[101] The regime confronted a multitude of challenges, including widespread poverty, illiteracy, health crises and gender inequality.[99] In response, Hoxha initiated a modernisation initiative aimed at attaining economic and social liberation and transforming Albania into an industrial society.[99] The regime placed a high priority on the diversification of the economy through Soviet-style industrialisation, comprehensive infrastructure development such as the introduction of a transformativerailway system, expansion of education and healthcare services, elimination of adult illiteracy, and targeted advancements in areas such as women's rights.[102][103][104][105]
Bunkers in Albania were constructed to prevent potential external invasions. By 1983, approximately 173,371 bunkers were scattered throughout its territory[106]
Albania's diplomatic history under Hoxha was characterised by notable conflicts.[90] Initially aligned with Yugoslavia as a satellite state, the relationship deteriorated as Yugoslavia aimed to incorporate Albania within its territory.[90] Subsequently, Albania established relations with the Soviet Union and engaged trade agreements with other Eastern European countries, but experienced disagreements over Soviet policies, leading to strained ties with Moscow and diplomatic separation in 1961.[90] Simultaneously, tensions with the West heightened due to Albania's refusal to hold free elections and allegations of Western support foranti-communist uprisings. Albania's enduring partnership was with China; it sided with Beijing during theSino-Soviet conflict, resulting in severed ties with the Soviet Union and withdrawal from theWarsaw Pact in response to the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. But their relations stagnated in 1970, prompting both to reassess their commitment, and Albania actively reduced its dependence on China.[90]
Under Hoxha's regime, Albania underwent a widespread campaign targeting religious clergy of various faiths, resulting in public persecution and executions, particularly targeting Muslims, Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox adherents.[90] In 1946, religious estates underwent nationalisation, coinciding with the closure or transformation of religious institutions into various other purposes.[90] This culminated in 1976, when Albania became the world's first constitutionally atheist state.[107] Under this regime, citizens were forced to renounce their religious beliefs, adopt a secular way of life, and embrace socialist ideology.[90][107]
In 1988, the first foreigners were allowed to walk into the car-freeSkanderbeg Square inTirana
After four decades of communism paired with therevolutions of 1989, Albania witnessed a notable rise in political activism, particularly among students, which led to a transformation in the prevailing order. After the firstmulti-party elections of1991, the communist party maintained a stronghold in the parliament until its defeat in theparliamentary elections of 1992 directed by theDemocratic Party.[108] Considerable economic and financial resources were devoted topyramid schemes that were widely supported by the government. The schemes swept up somewhere between one sixth and one third of the population of the country.[109][110] Despite theInternational Monetary Fund's warnings,Sali Berisha defended the schemes as large investment firms, leading more people to redirect their remittances and sell their homes and cattle for cash to deposit in the schemes.[111]
The schemes began to collapse in late 1996, leading many of the investors to join initially peaceful protests against the government, requesting their money back. The protests turned violent in February 1997 as government forces responded by firing on the demonstrators. In March, the Police and Republican Guard deserted, leaving their armories open. These were promptly emptied by militias and criminal gangs. The resultingcivil war caused a wave of evacuations of foreign nationals and refugees.[112]
The crisis led bothAleksandër Meksi andSali Berisha to resign from office in the wake of the general election. In April 1997,Operation Alba, a U.N. peacekeeping force led by Italy, entered Albania with two goals: to assist with the evacuation of expatriates and secure the ground for international organisations. The main international organisation involved was theWestern European Union'smultinationalAlbanian Police element, which worked with the government to restructure thejudicial system and simultaneously the Albanian police.
On 9 March 2020,COVID-19 was confirmed to have spread to Albania.[126][127] From March to June 2020, the government declared astate of emergency as a measure to limit the virus's spread.[128][129][130] The country's COVID-19vaccination campaign started on 11 January 2021, but as of 11 August 2021, the total number of vaccines administered in Albania was 1,280,239 doses.[131][132]
Albania lies along theMediterranean Sea on theBalkan Peninsula inSouth andSoutheast Europe, and has an area of 28,748 km2 (11,100 sq mi).[134] It is bordered by theAdriatic Sea to the west,Montenegro to the northwest,Kosovo to the northeast,North Macedonia to the east,Greece to the south, and theIonian Sea to the southwest. It is between latitudes42° and39° N and longitudes21° and19° E. Geographic coordinates includeVërmosh at 42° 35' 34" northern latitude as the northernmost point,Konispol at 39° 40' 0" northern latitude as the southernmost,Sazan at 19° 16' 50" eastern longitude as the westernmost, andVërnik at 21° 1' 26" eastern longitude as the easternmost.[135]Mount Korab, rising at 2,764 m (9,068.24 ft)above the Adriatic, is the highest point, while the Mediterranean Sea, at 0 m (0.00 ft), is the lowest. The country extends 148 km (92 mi) from east to west and around 340 km (211 mi) from north to south.
Albania has a diverse and varied landscape with mountains and hills that traverse its territory in various directions. The country is home to extensive mountain ranges, including theAlbanian Alps in the north, theKorab Mountains in the east, thePindus Mountains in the southeast, theCeraunian Mountains in the southwest, and theSkanderbeg Mountains in the centre. In the northwest is theLake of Shkodër, Southern Europe's largest lake.[136] Towards thesoutheast emerges theLake of Ohrid, one of the world's oldest continuously existing lakes.[137] Farther south, the expanse includes theLarge andSmall Lake of Prespa, some of the Balkans' highest lakes. Rivers rise mostly in the east and discharge into the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The country's longest river, measured from mouth to source, is theDrin, which starts at the confluence of its two headwaters, theBlack andWhite Drin. Of particular concern is theVjosë, one of Europe's last intact large river systems.
In Albaniaforest cover is around 29.% of the total land area, equivalent to 788,900 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 788,800 hectares (ha) in 1990. Of the naturally regenerating forest 11% was reported to beprimary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 0% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 97% of the forest area was reported to be underpublic ownership, 3%private ownership and 0% with ownership listed as other or unknown.[138][139]
Theclimate of Albania exhibits a distinguished level of variability and diversity due to the differences in latitude, longitude and altitude.[140][141] Albania experiences aMediterranean andContinental climate, characterised by the presence of four distinct seasons.[142] According to theKöppen classification, Albania encompasses five primary climatic types, spanning from Mediterranean andsubtropical in the western half tooceanic,continental andsubarctic in the eastern half of the country.[143] The coastal regions along theAdriatic andIonian Seas in Albania are acknowledged as the warmest areas, while the northern and eastern regions encompassing theAlbanian Alps and theKorab Mountains are recognised as the coldest areas in the country.[144] Throughout the year, the average monthly temperatures fluctuate, ranging from −1 °C (30 °F) during the winter months to 21.8 °C (71.2 °F) in the summer months. Notably, the highest recorded temperature of 43.9 °C (111.0 °F) was observed inKuçovë on 18 July 1973, while the lowest temperature of −29 °C (−20 °F) was recorded in Shtyllë,Librazhd on 9 January 2017.[145][146]
Albania receives most of theprecipitation in winter months and less in summer months.[141] The average precipitation is about 1,485 millimetres (58.5 inches).[144] The mean annual precipitation ranges between 600 and 3,000 millimetres (24 and 118 inches) depending on geographical location.[142] Thenorthwestern andsoutheastern highlands receive the intenser amount of precipitation, whilst thenortheastern andsouthwestern highlands as well as theWestern Lowlands the more limited amount.[144] TheAlbanian Alps in the far north of the country are considered to be among the most humid regions of Europe, receiving at least 3,100 mm (122.0 in) of rain annually.[144] Fourglaciers within these mountains were discovered at a relatively low altitude of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), which is extremely rare for such a southerly latitude.[147]
Approximately 3,500 different species of plants can be found in Albania which refers principally to aMediterranean andEurasian character. The country maintains a vibrant tradition of herbal and medicinal practices. At the minimum 300 plants growing locally are used in the preparation of herbs and medicines.[157] The trees within the forests are primarilyfir,oak,beech andpine.
Climate change is predicted to exert significant impacts on the quality of life in Albania.[167] Albania is one of the European countries most at risk and vulnerable tonatural disasters.[168] Natural disasters, such asfloods,forest fires, andlandslides, are increasing in Albania due to climate change, causing significant damage.[169][170] Rising sea levels are anticipated to negatively impact coastal communities and the tourism industry.[171]
In 2023 Albania emitted 7.67 million tonnes ofgreenhouse gases,[172] equivalent to 2.73 tonnes per person,[173] making it a relatively low emitting country. Albania has pledged a 20.9% reduction in GHG emissions by 2030, andnet zero by 2050.[174]
The country has a moderate and improving performance in theEnvironmental Performance Index with an overall ranking of 62 out of 180 countries in 2022.[175] However, Albania's ranking has decreased since its highest placement at position 15 in the Environmental Performance Index of 2012.[176]
Since declaring independence in 1912, Albania has experienced a significant political transformation, traversing through distinct periods that included a monarchical rule, a communist regime and the eventual establishment of a democratic order.[177] In 1998, Albania transitioned into asovereignparliamentaryconstitutional republic, marking a fundamental milestone in its political evolution.[178] Its governance structure operates under aconstitution that serves as the principal document of the country.[179] The constitution is grounded in the principle of theseparation of powers, with three arms of government that encompass the legislative embodied in theParliament, the executive led by thePresident as the ceremonialhead of state and thePrime Minister as the functionalhead of government, and the judiciary with a hierarchy of courts, including theconstitutional andsupreme courts as well as multipleappeal andadministrative courts.[178]
Albania's legal system is structured to protect its people's political rights, regardless of their ethnic, linguistic, racial, or religious affiliations.[178][180] Despite these principles, there are significant human rights concerns in Albania that demand attention.[181] These concerns include issues related to the independence of the judiciary, the absence of a free media sector and the enduring problem of corruption within various governmental bodies, law enforcement agencies and other institutions.[181] As Albania pursues its path towards EU membership, active efforts are being made to achieve substantial improvements in these areas to align with EU criteria and standards.[180]
Emerging from decades of isolation during the communism, Albania has adopted aforeign policy orientation centred on active cooperation and engagement in international affairs. At the core of Albania's foreign policies lie a set of objectives, which encompass the commitment to protect its sovereignty and territorial integrity, the cultivation of diplomatic ties with other countries, advocating forinternational recognition of Kosovo, addressing the concerns related to theexpulsion of Cham Albanians, pursuing Euro-Atlantic integration and protecting the rights of the Albanians inKosovo,Greece,Italy,Montenegro,North Macedonia,Serbia and thediaspora.[183]
The external affairs of Albania underscore the country's dedication to regional stability and integration into major international institutions.[184] Albania became a member of theUnited Nations (UN) in 1955, shortly after emerging from a period of isolation during the communist era.[185] The country reached a major achievement in its foreign policy by securing NATO membership in 2009.[186][187] Since obtaining candidate status in 2014, the country has also embarked on a comprehensive reform agenda to align itself with European Union (EU) accession standards, with the objective of becoming an EU member state.[118]
Albania and Kosovo maintain a fraternal relationship strengthened by their substantial cultural, ethnical and historical ties.[188] Both countries foster enduring diplomatic ties, with Albania actively supporting Kosovo's development and international integration efforts.[188] Its fundamental contribution toKosovo's path to independence is underscored by its earlyrecognition of Kosovo's sovereignty in 2008.[189] Furthermore, both governments hold annual joint meetings, displayed by the inaugural meeting in 2014, which serves as an official platform to enhance bilateral cooperation and reinforce their joint commitment to policies that promote the stability and prosperity of the broader Albanian region.[188]
The chief purpose of the armed forces of Albania is the defence of the independence, thesovereignty and theterritorial integrity of the country, as well as the participation in humanitarian, combat, non-combat and peace support operations.[190]Military service is voluntary since 2010 with the age of 19 being the legal minimum age for the duty.[191][192]
Albania has committed to increase the participations in multinational operations.[193] Since the fall of communism, the country has participated in six international missions but only one United Nations mission inGeorgia, where it sent three military observers. Since February 2008, Albania has participated officially in NATO'sOperation Active Endeavor in theMediterranean Sea.[194] It was invited to join NATO on 3 April 2008, and it became a full member on 2 April 2009.[195]
Albania reduced the number of active troops from 65,000 in 1988 to 14,500 in 2009.[196][197] The military now consists mainly of a small fleet of aircraft and sea vessels. Increasing the military budget was one of the most important conditions forNATO integration. As of 1996 military spending was an estimated 1.5% of the country's GDP, only to peak in 2009 at 2% and fall again to 1.5%.[198]
Albania is defined within a territorial area of 28,748 km2 (11,100 sq mi) in theBalkan Peninsula. It is informally divided into three regions, theNorthern,Central andSouthern Regions. Sinceits Declaration of Independence in 1912, Albania has reformedits internal organisation 21 times. Presently, the primaryadministrative units are the twelve constituentcounties (qarqe/qarqet), which hold equal status under the law.[199] Counties had previously been used in the 1950s and were recreated on 31 July 2000 to unify the 36districts (rrathë/rrathët) of that time.[200][201] The largest county in Albania by population isTirana County with over 800,000 people. The smallest county, by population, isGjirokastër County with over 70,000 people. The largest county, by area, isKorçë County encompassing 3,711 square kilometres (1,433 sq mi) of the southeast of Albania. The smallest county, by area, isDurrës County with an area of 766 square kilometres (296 sq mi) in the west of Albania.
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(May 2023)
Tirana is the economic hub of the country. It is home to major domestic and foreign companies operating in the country.
Albania's transition from a socialistplanned economy to a capitalistmixed economy has been largely successful.[210] The country has adeveloping mixed economy classified by theWorld Bank as anupper-middle income economy. In 2016, it had the fourth-lowestunemployment rate in theBalkans with an estimated value of 14.7%. Its largest trading partners are Italy, Greece, China, Spain, Kosovo and the United States. Thelek (ALL) is the country's currency and ispegged at approximately 132.51 lek per euro.
The cities ofTirana andDurrës constitute the economic and financial heart of Albania due to their high population, modern infrastructure and strategic geographical location. The country's most important infrastructure facilities take course through both of the cities, connecting the north to the south as well as the west to the east. Among the largestcompanies are the energy distribution public companyOSHEE, steel producer Kurum, oil cdompanies like Kastrati,Albpetrol, andARMO, the mineralAlbChrome, the investmentBALFIN Group and the telecommunications companiesOne Albania andVodafone.[211]
Agriculture in the country is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units. It remains a significant sector of theeconomy of Albania. It employs 41%[217] of the population, and about 24.31% of the land is used for agricultural purposes. One of the earliest farming sites in Europe has been found in the southeast of the country.[218] As part of the pre-accession process of Albania to theEuropean Union, farmers are being aided throughIPA funds to improve Albanian agriculture standards.[219]
Albania has one of Europe's longest histories ofviticulture.[221] Today's region was one of the few places where vine was naturally grown during the ice age. The oldest found seeds in the region are 4,000 to 6,000 years old.[222] In 2009, the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of wine.[223]
Albania's secondary sector has undergone many changes and diversification since the communist regime collapsed. It is very diversified, fromelectronics,manufacturing,[224]textiles, tofood,cement,mining,[225] andenergy. TheAntea Cement plant inFushë-Krujë is considered one of the nation's largest industrial greenfield investments.[226] Albanian oil and gas is one of the most promising, albeit strictly regulated, sectors of its economy. Albania has thesecond-largest oil deposits in theBalkan peninsula afterRomania, and the largestoil reserves[227] in Europe. TheAlbpetrol company is owned by the Albanian state and monitors the state petroleum agreements in the country. The textile industry has seen an extensive expansion by approaching companies from theEuropean Union (EU) in Albania. According to theInstituti i Statistikës (INSTAT), as of 2016[update], textile production had an annual growth of 5.3% and an annual turnover of around 1.5 billion euros.[228]
Albania is a significant minerals producer and ranks among the world's leadingchromium producers and exporters.[229] The nation is also a notable producer of copper, nickel, and coal.[230] TheBatra mine,Bulqizë mine, andThekna mine are among the most recognised Albanian mines still in operation.
Thetertiary sector represents the fastest growing sector of the country's economy. 36% of the population work in the service sector which contributes to 65% of the country's GDP.[231] Ever since the end of the 20th century, thebanking industry is a major component of the tertiary sector and remains in good conditions overall due toprivatisation and the commendablemonetary policy.[232][231]
Tourism is recognised as an industry of national importance and has been steadily increasing since the beginnings of the 21st century.[233][234] It directly accounted for 8.4% of GDP in 2016 though including indirect contributions pushes the proportion to 26%.[235] In the same year, the country received approximately 4.74 million visitors mostly from across Europe and the United States as well.[236]
The increase of foreign visitors has been dramatic. Albania had only 500,000 visitors in 2005, and an estimated 4.2 million in 2012, an increase of 740 percent. In 2015, summer tourism increased by 25 percent from 2014, according to the country's tourism agency.[237] In 2011,Lonely Planet named Albania as a top travel destination,[238][failed verification] whileThe New York Times placed Albania as number 4 global tourist destination in 2014.[239]
The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along theAdriatic andIonian Sea in the west of the country. But theAlbanian Riviera in the southwest has the most scenic and pristine beaches; its coastline has a considerable length of 446 kilometres (277 miles).[240] The coast has a distinctive character, rich in varieties of virgin beaches, capes, coves, covered bays, lagoons, small gravel beaches, sea caves, and many landforms. Some parts of this seaside are very clean ecologically, including unexplored areas, which are very rare within theMediterranean.[241] Other attractions include the mountainous areas such as theAlbanian Alps,Ceraunian Mountains andKorab Mountains but also the historical cities ofBerat,Durrës,Gjirokastër,Sarandë,Shkodër andKorçë.
Theinternational airport ofTirana is the premier air gateway to the country, and is also the principal hub for Albania's nationalflag carrier airline,Air Albania. The airport carried more than 3.3 million passengers in 2019 with connections to many destinations in other countries aroundEurope,Africa andAsia.[242] The country plans to progressively increase the number of airports especially in the south with possible locations inSarandë,Gjirokastër andVlorë.[243]
Durrës is the busiest and largestseaport in the country, followed byVlorë,Shëngjin andSarandë. As of 2014[update], it is as one of the largest passenger ports on theAdriatic Sea, with annual passenger volume of about 1.5 million. The principal ports serve a system of ferries connecting Albania with islands and coastal cities in Croatia, Greece, and Italy.
The rail network is administered by the national railway companyHekurudha Shqiptare, which was extensively promoted by Hoxha. There has been considerable increase in private car ownership and bus usage while rail use decreased since the end of communism. A new railway line from Tirana and its airport to Durrës is planned. The location of this railway, connecting Albania's most populated urban areas, makes it an important economic development project.[246][247]
TheUniversity of Arts is the largest higher education institute dedicated to the study of arts
In Albania, education is secular, free,compulsory, and based on three levels.[248][249] The academic year is apportioned into two semesters, beginning in September or October and ending in June or July.Albanian is theprimary language of instruction in the country'sacademic institutions.[249] The study of a firstforeign language is mandatory and taught most often at elementary and bilingual schools.[250] Languages taught in schools are English, Italian, French and German.[250] Albania has aschool life expectancy of 16 years and aliteracy rate of 98.7%, with 99.2% for men and 98.3% for women.[251][252]
Compulsory primary education is divided into two levels, elementary and secondary school, from grade one to five and six to nine, respectively.[248] Pupils are required to attend school from the age six until they turn 16. Upon successful completion of primary education, all pupils are entitled to attend high schools, specialising in any field, including arts, sports, languages, sciences, and technology.[248]
Tertiary education is optional and has undergone a thorough reformation and restructuring in compliance with the principles of theBologna Process. There are a significant number of private and publicinstitutions of higher education in Albania's major cities.[253][249] Tertiary education is organised into three successive levels, thebachelor,master, anddoctorate.
TheAlbanian cuisine from the Mediterranean, which is characterised by the use of fruits, vegetables andolive oil, contributes to the good nutrition of the country's population[254]
In 2009, Albania had a fruit and vegetable supply of 886 grams per capita per day, the fifth-highest supply in Europe.[261] Compared to other developed and developing countries, Albania has a relatively low rate ofobesity, probably thanks to theMediterranean diet.[262][263] According to2016 WHO data, 21.7% of adults in the country are clinicallyoverweight, with aBody mass index (BMI) score of 25 or more.[264]
Albania'swater resources are particularly abundant in all the regions of the country and compriselakes,rivers, springs, and groundwater aquifers.[276] The country's available average quantity offresh water is estimated at 129.7 cubic metres (4,580 cubic feet) per inhabitant per year, one of the highest rates in Europe.[277] According to data presented by theJoint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) in 2015, about 93% of the country's total population had access toimproved sanitation.[278]
After thefall of communism in 1991, human resources in sciences and technology in Albania have drastically decreased. As of various reports, during 1991 to 2005 approximately 50% of the professors and scientists of the universities and science institutions in the country have left Albania.[284] In 2009, thegovernment approved the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in Albania covering the period 2009 to 2015.[285] It aims to triple public spending onresearch and development to 0.6% of GDP and augment the share ofGDE from foreign sources, including the framework programmes for research of theEuropean Union, to the point where it covers 40% of research spending, among others. Albania was ranked 84th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[286]
Telecommunication represents one of the fastest growing and dynamic sectors in Albania.[287][288]Vodafone Albania,Telekom Albania andAlbtelecom are the three large providers ofmobile andinternet in Albania.[287] As of theElectronic and Postal Communications Authority (AKEP) in 2018, the country had approximately 2.7 million active mobile users with almost 1.8 million active broadband subscribers.[289] Vodafone Albania alone served more than 931,000 mobile users, Telekom Albania had about 605,000 users and Albtelecom had more than 272,000 users.[289] InJanuary 2023, Albania launched itsfirst two satellites,Albania 1 andAlbania 2, intoorbit, in what was regarded as a milestone effort in monitoring the country's territory and identifying illegal activities.[290][291] Albanian-American engineerMira Murati, the Chief Technology Officer of research organisationOpenAI, played a substantial role in the development and launch of artificial intelligence services such asChatGPT,Codex andDALL-E.[292][293][294] In December 2023, Prime Minister Edi Rama announced plans for collaboration between the Albanian government and ChatGPT, facilitated by discussions with Murati.[295][296] Rama emphasised the intention to streamline the alignment of Albanian laws with the regulations of the European Union, aiming to reduce costs associated with translation and legal services.[295]
The demographic statistics of Albania, as revealed by the 2023 census conducted by theInstituti i Statistikave (INSTAT), indicated a population of 2,402,113, with a notable decline from the 2,821,977 recorded in the 2011 census.[2][297] The decrease in inhabitants began after the disintegration of the communist regime in Albania and is associated with significant shifts within the political, economic, and social structure of Albania.[298][299] A principal factor in this transition incorporates a decline in fertility rates coupled with an increase in emigration, both contributing to persistent demographic changes and challenges.[300] It is forecast that the population will continue shrinking for the next decade at least, depending on the actual rates and the level of migration.[301] Currently, the population density of Albania is measured at 83.6 inhabitants per square kilometer with a varied distribution of inhabitants across different regions.[2][302] The counties ofTirana andDurrës showcase substantial concentrations of people, accounting for about 41% of the overall demographic of Albania, with 32% residing in Tirana and 9% in Durrës.[303] Conversely, more peripheral and rural counties such asGjirokastër andKukës present significantly lower population densities, with each aiding 3% to the overall population.[303]
Historically, the Albanian people have established several communities in many regions throughout Southern Europe. TheAlbanian diaspora has been formed since the late Middle Ages, when they emigrated to escape either various socio-political difficulties or the Ottoman conquest of Albania.[304] Following the fall of communism, large numbers of Albanians have migrated to countries such as Australia, Canada, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. Albanianminorities are present in the neighbouring territories such as the west of North Macedonia, the southeast of Montenegro, Kosovo in its entirety and parts of southern Serbia. Altogether, the number of ethnic Albanians living abroad is estimated to be higher than the total population inside Albania. As much as a third of those born in the country's borders now live outside of it, making Albania one of the countries with the highest rate of outmigration relative to its population in the world.[305][306] In 2022 the birth rate was 20% lower than in 2021, largely due to emigration of people of childbearing age.[307]
Subsequent to the collapse of communism in 1991, Albania has undergone a remarkable transformation in its urban landscape, emerging as one of the fastest urbanising countries in Europe.[308][309][310] At the forefront of this transformation is theTirana-Durrës agglomeration, a densely populated urban corridor situated along thewestern coast of Albania.[311] This corridor has become the primary locus of population growth and settlement development, attracting a significant influx of internal migrants from the country's peripheral areas.[311] Despite an overall decline of the country's total population, the proportion of the urban demographic has consistently progressed from 47% in 2001 to 65% in 2023.[299][312][313] This sustained increase, coupled with the concentration in the Tirana-Durrës region, has led to a spread of regional imbalances, with the peripheral areas, particularlyDibër andKukës, experiencing severe depopulation.[314][315][303]
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(May 2023)
Founded in 1887, theMësonjëtorja was the first secular school to provide education in theAlbanian during the Ottoman Empire.
Theofficial language of the country isAlbanian which is spoken by the vast majority of the country's population.[327] Its standard spoken and written form is revised and merged from the two main dialects,Gheg andTosk, though it is notably based more on the Tosk dialect. TheShkumbin river is the rough dividing line between the two dialects. Among minority languages,Greek is the second most-spoken language in the country, with 0.5 to 3% of the population speaking it as first language, mainly in the country's south where its speakers are concentrated.[328][329][330][331] Other languages spoken by ethnic minorities in Albania includeAromanian,Serbian,Macedonian,Bosnian,Bulgarian,Gorani, andRoma.[332] Macedonian is official in the Pustec Municipality in East Albania. According to the 2011 population census, 2,765,610 or 98.8% of the population declaredAlbanian as theirmother tongue.[333] Because of large migration flows from Albania, over half of Albanians during their life learn a second language. The main foreign language known is English with 40.0%, followed by Italian with 27.8% and Greek with 22.9%. The English speakers were mostly young people, the knowledge of Italian is stable in every age group, while there is a decrease of the speakers of Greek in the youngest group.[334]
Among young people aged 25 or less, English, German and Turkish have seen rising interest after 2000. Italian and French have had a stable interest, while Greek has lost much of its previous interest. The trends are linked with cultural and economic factors.[335]
Young people have shown a growing interest in theGerman language in recent years.[citation needed] Some of them go to Germany for studying or various experiences. Albania and Germany have agreements for cooperating in helping young people of the two countries know both cultures better.[336] Due to a sharp rise in economic relations with Turkey, interest in learning Turkish, in particular among young people, has been growing on a yearly basis.[337]
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(September 2024)
Designated national and cultural minorities in Albania include Aromanian, Greek, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Serb, Roma, Egyptian, Bosnian and Bulgarian peoples, as well as Gorani and Jews as other minority groups.[338][339] The 2023 census recorded the ethnic composition asAlbanians 2,186,917 (91,04% of the total),Greeks 23,485 (0,98%),Macedonians 2,281 (0,09%),Montenegrins 511 (0,02%),Aromanians 2,459 (0,1%),Roma 9,813 (0.4%),Balkan Egyptians 12,375 (0,5%),Bosnians 2,963 (0,12%),Serbians 584 (0,02%),Bulgarians 7,057 (0,29%), mixed ethnicities 770 (0.03%), other ethnicities 3,798 (0.15%), and 134,451 (5.60%) with unspecified ethnicity, out of a total population of 2,402,113.[340]
Contrary to official statistics that show an Albanian majority, the minority groups have frequently disputed the official numbers, asserting a higher percentage of the country's population. The Greek government claimed there were an estimation of 300,000 ethnic Greeks in Albania.[341][342][343][344][345] TheCIA World Factbook estimates the Greek minority to constitute 0.9%[346] of the population. The US State Department estimates that Greeks make up 1.17%, and other minorities 0.23%, of the population.[347] The latter questioned the validity of the 2011 census data about the Greek minority, as measurements had allegedly been affected by boycott.[348]
Regions with a traditional presence of ethnic groups other than Albanian.
Distribution of ethnic groups within Albania, as of the 2011 census. Districts coloured grey are those where a majority of people did not declare an ethnicity (the question was optional). The census was criticised and boycotted by minorities in Albania.
Traditional locations of linguistic and religious communities in Albania.
Albania is asecular and religiously diverse country with noofficial religion.Freedom of religion,belief andconscience are guaranteed under the country'sconstitution.[349] As of the 2023 Census, there were 1,101,718 (45.86%)Sunni Muslims, 201,530 (8.38%)Catholics, 173,645 (7.22%)Eastern Orthodox, 115,644 (4.81%)Bektashi Muslims, 9,658 (0.4%)Evangelicals, 3,670 (0.15%) of other religions, 332,155 (13.82%) believers without denomination, 85,311 (3.55%) Atheists and 378,782 (15.76%) did not provide an answer.[1] Albania is nevertheless ranked among the least religious countries in the world.[350] Religion constitute an important role in the lives of only 39% of the country's population.[351] In another report, 56% considered themselves religious, 30% considered themselves non-religious, while 9% defined themselves as convinced atheists. 80% believed in God.[352]
Representatives of the Sunni, Orthodox, Bektashi and Catholic Albanian communities inParis
Duringmodern times, the Albanian republican, monarchic and later communist regimes followed a systematic policy of separating religion from official functions and cultural life. The country has never had anofficial religion either as a republic or as a kingdom. In the 20th century, the clergy of all faiths was weakened under the monarchy and ultimately eradicated during the 1950s and 1960s, under the state policy of obliterating all organised religion from the territories of Albania. Thecommunist regime persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions and entirelybanned religion. The country was then officially declared to be the world's firstatheist state. Religious freedom has returned, however, since theend of communism.
Islam survived communist era persecution and reemerged in the modern era as a practised religion in Albania.[356] Some smaller Christian sects in Albania includeEvangelicals and severalProtestant communities includingSeventh-day Adventist Church,Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints andJehovah's Witnesses.[357][358][359][360] The first recorded Protestant of Albania was Said Toptani, who travelled around Europe and returned toTirana in 1853, where he preachedProtestantism. The firstevangelical Protestants appeared in the 19th century and the Evangelical Alliance was founded in 1892. Nowadays, it has 160 member congregations from different Protestant denominations. Following mass emigration to Israel after the fall of communism, there are only 200 AlbanianJews left in the country.[361][362]
Albanian traditional clothing, with its contrasting variations for the northernGheg and southernTosk Albanians, is a testament to Albania's history, cultural diversity and ethnic identity.[369] Gheg men wear a light-colored shirt paired with wide loose-fitting trousers referred to as the Tirq. These trousers are securely fastened by a wide woven belt, the Brez. An integral component of their costume is theXhamadan, a woolen red velvet vest adorned with folkloric motifs and gold patterns.[370] They also wear a distinctive dome-shaped hat known as theQeleshe, crafted from wool, with its origins tracing back to theIllyrians.[371][372] Conversely, Tosk men opt for theFustanella, a knee-length garment designated as the national costume, typically white with pleats, accompanied by a white shirt. They also wear a beige or dark blue Xhamadan reminiscent of the Gheg attire. To complete their attire, men wear knee-high socks referred to asÇorape and leather shoes known asOpinga.
The attire of Gheg and Tosk women is renowned for its rich palette of colors and intricate filigree detailing, displayed across various components including ear ornaments, finger rings, necklaces, belt buckles and buttons. Key components include a long, light-toned shirt paired with an apron, often accompanied by a woolen or felt mantle referred to as the Xhoka. Additional upper garments, such as the Dollama or Mintan, may be layered, along with a headscarf known as Kapica or Shall. A distinctive variation incorporates a pair of aprons, including the Pështjellak at the rear and the Paranik at the front. Integral to the traditional attire of Gheg women is the ancientXhubleta.[369] Dedicated efforts have been undertaken to preserve and promote the dress, acknowledging its significance as an emblem of Albanian heritage.[373] As a testament to its importance, the Xhubleta has been inscribed on theUNESCOIntangible Cultural Heritage List.[373] The distinctive bell-shaped garment is fashioned in black and enriched with embroidered ethnic Albanian motifs, showcasing the remarkable craftsmanship of northern Albania.[369] Its crafting process involves multiple intricate stages, encompassing the preparation of shajak fabric and the precise cutting techniques.[373]
Theartistic history of Albania has been particularly influenced by a multitude of ancient and medievalpeople, traditions and religions. It covers a broad spectrum with mediums and disciplines that include painting,pottery, sculpture,ceramics and architecture all of them exemplifying a great variety in style and shape, in different regions and period.
Thearchitecture of Albania reflects the legacy of various civilisations tracing back to theclassical antiquity. Major cities in Albania have evolved from within the castle to include dwellings, religious and commercial structures, with constant redesigning of town squares and evolution of building techniques. Nowadays, the cities and towns reflect a whole spectrum of variousarchitectural styles. In the 20th century, many historical as well assacred buildings bearing the ancient influence were demolished during thecommunist era.[376]
Bliss, stainless steel sculpture by contemporary artistHelidon Xhixha.
A productive period ofHistoricism,Art Nouveau andNeoclassicism merged into the 19th century, best exemplified inKorçë. The 20th century brought new architectural styles such as the modernItalian style, which is present inTirana such as theSkanderbeg Square and Ministries. It is also present in Shkodër,Vlorë,Sarandë andDurrës. Moreover, other towns received their present-day Albania-unique appearance through various cultural or economic influences.
Bukë misri (cornbread) is a staple on the Albanian table
Throughout the centuries,Albanian cuisine has been widely influenced byAlbanian culture,geography andhistory, and as such, different parts of the country enjoy specificregional cuisines. Cooking traditions especially vary between the north and the south, owing to differingtopography andclimate that essentially contribute to the excellent growth conditions for a wide array of herbs, fruits, and vegetables.[379]
Albanians produce and use many varieties of fruits such aslemons, oranges,figs, and most notably,olives, which are perhaps the most important element of Albanian cooking. Spices and other herbs such asbasil,lavender,mint,oregano,rosemary, andthyme are widely used, as are vegetables such as garlic, onions,peppers, potatoes, tomatoes, as well aslegumes of all types.
With a coastline along theAdriatic andIonian in theMediterranean Sea, fish,crustaceans, and seafood are a popular and an integral part of the Albanian diet. Otherwise,lamb is the traditional meat for different holidays andreligious festivals for bothChristians andMuslims, although poultry, beef, and pork are also in plentiful supply.
Speca të fërguar (roastedpeppers) served withpite, a traditional and prominent layered Albanian pie
Petulla, a traditional fried dough, is also a popular speciality, and is served withpowdered sugar orfeta cheese and different sorts offruit jams.Flia consists of multiplecrêpe-like layers brushed with cream and served with sour cream.Krofne, similar toBerliner doughnuts, are filled with jam, or chocolate and often eaten during winter.
Coffee is an integral part of the Albanian lifestyle. The country has more coffee houses per capita than any other country in the world.[380] Tea is also enjoyed both at home or outside at cafés, bars, or restaurants. Çaj Mali (Sideritis tea) is enormously beloved, and a part of the daily routine for most Albanians. It is cultivated across Southern Albania and noted for its medicinal properties.Black tea is also popular.
Albanian folk music is a prominent part of the national identity, and continues to play a major part in overallAlbanian music. Folk music can be divided into two stylistic groups, mainly the northernGheg varieties, and southernLab andTosk varieties. Northern and southern traditions are contrasted by a rugged tone from the north, and the more relaxed southern form of music.
Festivali i Këngës is a traditional Albanian song contest organised by the national broadcasterRadio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH). The festival is celebrated annually since its inauguration in 1962 and has launched the careers of some of Albania's most successful singers includingVaçe Zela andParashqevi Simaku.[385] It is significantly a music competition among Albanian performers presenting unreleased songs in premiere, composed by Albanian authors and voted by juries or by public.
The cultural renaissance was first of all expressed through the development of theAlbanian language in the area of church texts and publications. The Protestant reforms invigorated hopes for the development of the local language and literary tradition, when clericGjon Buzuku translated theCatholic liturgy into Albanian, trying to do for Albanian whatMartin Luther had done for German.Meshari (The Missal) written byGjon Buzuku was published in 1555 and is considered one of the first literary work of written Albanian during the Middle Ages. The refined level of the language and the stabilised orthography must be the result of an earlier tradition of written Albanian, a tradition that is not well understood. However, there is some fragmented evidence, pre-dating Buzuku, which indicates that Albanian was written from at least the 14th century.
Albanian writings from these centuries must not have been religious texts only, but historical chronicles too. They are mentioned by the humanistMarin Barleti, who in his bookSiege of Shkodër (Rrethimi i Shkodrës) from 1504, confirms that he leafed through such chronicles written in the language of the people (in vernacula lingua) as well as his famous biography ofSkanderbegHistoria de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum principis (History of Skanderbeg) from 1508. TheHistory of Skanderbeg is still the foundation of Skanderbeg studies and is considered an Albanian cultural treasure, vital to the formation of Albanian national self-consciousness.
During the 16th and the 17th centuries, thecatechism (E mbësuame krishterë) (Christian Teachings) from 1592 written byLekë Matrënga, (Doktrina e krishterë) (The Christian Doctrine) from 1618 and (Rituale romanum) 1621 byPjetër Budi, the first writer of original Albanianprose and poetry, anapology for George Castriot (1636) byFrang Bardhi, who also published a dictionary andfolklore creations, the theological-philosophical treatyCuneus Prophetarum (The Band of Prophets) (1685) byPjetër Bogdani, the most universal personality of AlbanianMiddle Ages, were published inAlbanian. The most famous Albanian writer in the 20th and 21st century is probablyIsmail Kadare.
Albania participated at theOlympic Games in 1972 for the first time. The country made their Winter Olympic Games debut in2006. Albania missed the next four games, two of them due to the 1980 and 1984 boycotts, but returned for the 1992 games inBarcelona. Since then, Albania have participated in all games. Albania normally competes in events that include swimming, athletics, weightlifting, shooting and wrestling. The country have been represented by theNational Olympic Committee of Albania since 1972. The nation has participated at theMediterranean Games since the games of1987 in Syria. The Albanian athletes have won a total of 43 (8 gold, 17 silver and 18 bronze) medals from1987 to2013.
Popular sports in Albania includefootball, weightlifting,basketball, volleyball, tennis, swimming,rugby union and gymnastics. Football is by far the most popular sport in Albania. It is governed by theFootball Association of Albania (Albanian:Federata Shqiptare e Futbollit, F.SH.F.), which has membership inFIFA andUEFA.
Weightlifting is one of the most successful individual sport for the Albanians, with the national team winning medals at theEuropean Weightlifting Championships and the rest international competitions. Albanian weightlifters have won a total of 16 medals at theEuropean Championships with 1 of them being gold, 7 silver and 8 bronze. In theWorld Weightlifting Championships, the Albanian weightlifting team has won in1972 a gold in2002 a silver and in2011 a bronze medal.
Nearly 60% of women in rural areas suffer physical or psychological violence and nearly 8% are victims of sexual violence. Protection orders are often violated.In 2014 the Albanian Helsinki Committee (AHC) reported that the number of female murder victims is still high.[391] The Commissioner for Protection from Discrimination has raised concerns regarding the family registration law that discriminates against women. As a result, heads of households, who are overwhelmingly men, have the right to change family residency without their partners' permission.[391]
In 2015, the associationILGA-Europe ranked Albania 19th in terms of LGBT rights out of 49 observed European countries.[392] Meanwhile, on the latest report in 2022, lack of progress caused Albania to be ranked the 28th country in Europe, among 49 countries observed.[393]
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^Madgearu & Gordon 2008, p. 25. "It is still disputed by scholars that those Albanoi from 1042 were Normans from Sicily, [Southern Italy], or if they are in fact the Albanoi [a large clan of that belongs to the many clans of Albanians] found in Albanian lands during this time frame."
^Robert Elsei.The Albanian lexicon of Dion Von Kirkman. Earliest reference to the existence of the Albanian language, pp. 113–122.
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^The Illyrians (The Peoples of Europe) by John Wilkes, 1996,ISBN978-0-631-19807-9, page 92, "Appian's description of the Illyrian territories records a southern boundary with Chaonia and Thesprotia, where ancient Epirus began south of river Aoous (Vjose)"also map
^Marjeta Šašel Kos, "The Illyrian King Ballaeus – Some Historical Aspects",Épire, Illyrie, Macédoine: Mélanges offerts au professeur Pierre Cabanes, ed. Danièle Berranger (Clermont-Ferrand: Presses Universitaires Blaise Pascal, 2007), 127.
^Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (24 January 2007).Balkans: A Post-Communist History. Routledge. p. 25.ISBN978-1-134-58328-7.From AD 548 onward, the lands now known as Albania began to be overrun from the north by ever-increasing ...
^Clements, John (1992),Clements encyclopedia of world governments, Vol. 10. Political Research, Inc. p. 31: "By 1190, Byzantium's power had so receded that the archon Progon succeeded in establishing the first Albanian state of the Middle Ages, a principality"
^Rob Pickard (2008).Analysis and Reform of Cultural Heritage Policies in South-East Europe (Europarat ed.). Council of Europe. p. 16.ISBN978-92-871-6265-6.
^Peirce, Leslie P. (1993).The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 94.ISBN0-19-507673-7.
^Kopecek, Michal; Ersoy, Ahmed; Gorni, Maciej; Kechriotis, Vangelis; Manchev, Boyan; Trencsenyi, Balazs; Turda, Marius (2006),Discourses of collective identity in Central and Southeast Europe (1770–1945), vol. 1, Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, p. 348,ISBN978-963-7326-52-3,The position of the League in the beginning was based on religious solidarity. It was even calledKomiteti i Myslimanëve të Vërtetë (The Committee of the Real Muslims) ... decisions are taken and supported mostly by landlords and people closely connected with Ottoman administration and religious authorities..
^Kopeček, Michal; Ersoy, Ahmed; Gorni, Maciej; Kechriotis, Vangelis; Manchev, Boyan; Trencsenyi, Balazs; Turda, Marius (2006),"Program of the Albanian League of Prizren",Discourses of collective identity in Central and Southeast Europe (1770–1945), vol. 1, Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, p. 347,ISBN978-963-7326-52-3, retrieved18 January 2011,there were no delegates from Shkodra villayet and a few Bosnian delegates also participated. Present was also mutasarrif (administrator of sandjak) of Prizren as representative of the central authorities
^Elsie, Robert."1878 The Resolutions of the League of Prizren". albanianhistory.net. Archived fromthe original on 8 September 2010. Retrieved20 February 2011.On 10 June 1878, ... The League of Prizren, Alb. Lidhja e Prizrenit, ... On 13 June 1878, the League submitted an eighteen-page memorandum to Benjamin Disraeli, the British representative at the Congress of Berlin
^Giaro, Tomasz (2007)."The Albanian legal and constitutional system between the World Wars".Modernisierung durch Transfer zwischen den Weltkriegen. Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Vittorio Klosterman GmbH. p. 185.ISBN978-3-465-04017-0. Retrieved24 January 2011.From its own members congress elected a senate (Pleqësi), composed of 18 members, which assumed advisory role to the government.
^Qemali, Ismail."Ismail Kemal bey Vlora: Memoirs". Archived fromthe original on 17 June 2010. Retrieved23 January 2011.On the resumption of the sitting, I was elected President of the Provisional Government, with a mandate to form a Cabinet ...
^Seton-Watson, R.W.; Wilson, J. Dover; Zimmern, Alfred E.; Greenwood, Arthur (10 January 2004) [1915],"III Germany",The War and Democracy (1st ed.), London: MacMillan, archived fromthe original on 13 November 2012,Prince William of Wied, the first Prince of Albania
^Elsie, Robert."Albania under prince Wied". Archived fromthe original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved25 January 2011.pro-Ottoman forces ... were opposed to the increasing Western influence ... In November 1913, these forces, ... had offered the vacant Albanian throne to General Izzet Pasha ... War Minister who was of Albanian origin.
^Jelavich, Barbara (1999) [1983],History of the Balkans: Twentieth century, vol. 2, Cambridge, United Kingdom: The Press Syndicate of University of Cambridge, p. 103,ISBN978-0-521-27459-3, retrieved25 January 2011,peasants..willing listeners to Ottoman propaganda ... attached the new regime as a tool of the beys and Christian powers
^Bowden, William (2003).Epirus Vetus : the archaeology of a late antique province. London: Duckworth. p. 28.ISBN978-0-7156-3116-4.the Greek Epirote population of the area refused to be incorporated into the new Albanian state and in February 1914 declared the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus ... in 1921 Albania was recognised as an independent sovereign state, with its borders established on their present lines.
^ed, Gregory C. Ference (1994).Chronology of 20th century eastern European history. Detroit [u.a.]: Gale Research. p. 9.ISBN978-0-8103-8879-6.February 28 George Zographos, a former foreign minister of Greece, proclaims at Gjirokaster the establishment of the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus, with Zographos as president. He notifies the International Commission that his government has been established because the Great Powers have not provided the Greeks in southern Albania any guarantees for the protection of the life, property and religious freedom, and ethnic existence.
^"The Efforts to settle amputated Albania state". albaniainbrief.com. Archived fromthe original on 1 June 2011. Retrieved28 January 2011.Thousands of muslim peasants, ... were exploited by their leaders Haxhi Qamili, Arif Hiqmeti, Musa Qazimi and Mustafa Ndroqi, ... to rebel
^Vickers, Miranda (1999).The Albanians: a modern history. I.B. Tauris. p. 81.ISBN978-1-86064-541-9.He gathered round him a group of discontented Muslim priests ... and proclaimed himself the savior of Albania and the Champion of Islam.
^abElsie, Robert (2010).Historical Dictionary of Albania. Historical Dictionaries of Europe, No. 75 (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD, and Plymouth:The Scarecrow Press. p. 27.ISBN978-0-8108-6188-6.
^Musaraj, Smoki (2011). "Tales from Albarado: The Materiality of Pyramid Schemes in Post-socialist Albania".Cultural Anthropology.26 (1):84–110.doi:10.1111/j.1548-1360.2010.01081.x.
^National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS): NCEI/WDS Global Significant Earthquake Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (1972)."Significant Earthquake Information". NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information.doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K.
^"Natural and Cultural Heritage of the Ohrid region". UNESCO. pp. UNESCO.Situated on the shores of Lake Ohrid, the town of Ohrid is one of the oldest human settlements in Europe; Lake Ohrid is a superlative natural phenomenon, providing refuge for numerous endemic and relict freshwater species of flora and fauna dating from the tertiary period. As a deep and ancient lake of tectonic origin, Lake Ohrid has existed continuously for approximately two to three million years.
^Protection and Preservation of Natural Environment in Albania."Albanian Nature".ppnea.org. Archived fromthe original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved4 January 2019.
^Sustainable Development of Sea-Corridors and Coastal Waters: The TEN ECOPORT project in South East Europe (Chrysostomos Stylios, Tania Floqi, Jordan Marinski, Leonardo Damiani ed.). Springer. 7 April 2015. p. 85.ISBN9783319113852.
^"Statistikat e transportit"(PDF) (in Albanian). Instituti i Statistikës (INSTAT). 27 January 2019. p. 2.Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved8 July 2020.
^Gjovalin Shkurtaj (2017).Urgjenca gjuhësore: -huazime të zëvendësueshme me fjalë shqipe- : (fjalorth). Naimi. pp. 15–16.ISBN9789928234049.Sic u permend me lart, per shkak te shkaqeve kulturore dhe ekonomike, trendet e mesimit te gjuheve nga te rinjte (grupmosha deri ne 25 vjec) ndryshojne. Keto trende jane percaktues i nje sere fenomeneve shoqerore, sic do te shohim me tej. Keshtu nga viti 2000 e ketej, gjuha angleze, gjermane dhe ajo turke kane pasur nje rritje te interest. Gjuha italiane, por edhe ajo franceze kane pasur nje stabilitet, pra as rritje dhe as ulje te interesit te pergjithshem nga ana e grupmoshes te siperpermendur. Vihet re se gjuha greke ka pesuar nje renie te forte te interesit. Ne fakt, shumica e interesit ka rene per kete gjuhe. Arsyet per kete gjuhe specifike do ti trajtojme me tej ne kapitulin e trete.
^Robert Bideleux; Ian Jeffries (2006).The Balkans: A Post-Communist History. Routledge. p. 49.ISBN978-0-203-96911-3.The Albanian government claimed that there were only 60,000, based on the biased 1989 census, whereas the Greek government claimed that there were upwards of 300,000. Most Western estimates were around the 200,000 mark ...
^Europa Publications (2008).The Europa World Year Book 2008. Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-1-85743-452-1.and Greece formally annulled claims to North Epirus (southern Albania), where there is a sizeable Greek minority. ... strained by concerns relating to the treatment of ethnic Greeks residing in Albania (numbering an estimated 300,000) ...
^"Albania".U.S. Department of State. Retrieved13 September 2014.
^"International Religious Freedom Report for 2014: Albania"(PDF).state.gov. United States Department of State. p. 5.Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved20 October 2015.Ethnic Greek minority groups had encouraged their members to boycott the census, affecting measurements of the Greek ethnic minority and membership in the Greek Orthodox Church.
^Historia e popullit shqiptar (in Albanian) (Instituti i Historisë (Akademia e Shkencave e RSH) ed.). Tirana: Botimet Toena, 2002. pp. 294–298,433–434.
^Stipčević 1977, p. 89: "It is generally agreed, and rightly so, that the modern Albanian cap originates directly from the similar cap worn by the Illyrians."
^Recherches albanologiques: Folklore et ethnologie. Instituti Albanologijik i Prishtinës. 1982. p. 52. Retrieved14 April 2013.Ne kuadrin e veshjeve me përkime ilire, të dokumentuara gjer më tani hyjnë tirqit, plisi, qeleshja e bardhë gjysmësferike, goxhufi-gëzofi etj
"Migracioni në Shqipëri, 2014"(PDF) (in Albanian). Tirana: Instituti i Statistikës (INSTAT). 2014.Archived(PDF) from the original on 14 September 2024. Retrieved14 September 2024.
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