 Portraits of Syrian presidentHafez al-Assad (r) and his eldest sonBassel, who was being groomed as a successor and who was the main face of the reforms, 1991 | |
| Date | 1991 – 2001 |
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| Location |  Ba'athist Syria |
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Al-Ta`addudiyya Al-Iqtisadiyya (lit. "Economic pluralism"), also calledAl-Ta'addudiyya Al-Siyyasiyya (lit. "Political pluralism"),[1][2] was a government reformist campaign and period of large-scaleliberal economic reforms inBa'athist Syria in the 1990s. Al-Ta`addudiyya Al-Iqtisadiyya markedSyria's departure from thecentralized andplanned economy that had existed in Syria continuouslysince 1963.[3] The campaign should not be confused withTa'addudiyya, a broader term that encompasses not only economic but also political changes in Syria that began in the 1970s.[4] This term was used quite frequently by President Hafez al-Assad in his speeches.[5] In essence, this policy lasted until 2001, after which it was replaced by more radical liberal economic reforms ofBashar al-Assad.[6]
Since 1970, GeneralHafez al-Assad has ruledSyria continuously. After coming to power, he launched an ambitious series of reforms known as theCorrective Movement program. As part of the Corrective Movement, he also adopted theInfiraj andTa'addudiyya policies, aimed at limitedliberalization of Syria to attract foreign capital for economic development.
However, despite the slogans about political and economic relaxation, Syria remained a centralizedmilitary dictatorship, whosecommand economy was built partly on theSoviet model.[6][7] Although the 1970s were relatively successful in terms of comprehensive development, economic problems and a clear shortage of capital and private investment became evident in the 1980s. TheFifth (1981-1985) andSixth Five-Year Plans (1986-1990) failed to achieve most of their goals, andausterity policies were introduced in the mid-1980s.[3][8] The government made several attempts to attract even more private capital, for example by reintroducing theinfiraj policy in 1986 and starting a gradual abolition of its command economy.[6] Liberal economic reforms themselves began earlier than they were officially proclaimed - the impetus for them was the economic crisis of 1986, which is where they began.[9][5] However, these measures were often insufficient and clashed with other measures aimed at subordinating private capital to the state.
In 1991, rigged presidential electionswere held in Syria, in which Hafez al-Assad won, being, as always, the only candidate. Almost immediately after the elections, at the same year, the beginning of large-scale political and economic relaxations was announced, which became known as Al-Ta`addudiyya Al-Iqtisadiyya.[10] Assad devoted much of his 1991 inauguration speech to this campaign of economic pluralism.[11] The policy called for further merging of the private and public sectors.[5] Thetotalitarian political control that had formed in the 1980s began to weaken as the threat of newIslamist uprisings in Syria no longer abated.[1] Moreover, the Hafez al-Assad regime learned a lesson from the fall ofcommunist dictatorshipsaround the world, managing to adapt in time to the new pace of global politics.
Liberalization was characterized by a gradual reduction in state support, the abolition of subsidies, price liberalization, and so on: that continued until 2010. While policy has finally recognized the importance of the private sector for the country's development, the state sector remains the dominant sector in the Syrian economy.[5] One of the most significant actions of the program was the adoption of Law No. 10 in 1991, which was aimed at providing greater incentives for foreign investment in those sectors of the economy that had previously been subject to complete state monopoly.[12][13] Statements related to this term could be heard in almost every speech or official government document that even slightly touched on economic development.[14]
By the end of the 1990s, civil forums began to form where politics could be discussed relatively freely and attempts were made to establish a dialogue with the president.[1] As part of this policy, the government has also carefully attempted to expand the political system in Syria, for example by opening the government andparliament to the potential entry of independent political groups that are not part of theNational Progressive Front (official coalition ofleftist organizations led by theBa'ath Party). Pluralist reforms also made it harder for anti-Ba'athist groups like theregional Muslim Brotherhood to recruit supporters - although the government's control over the population has weakened, its support has also increased for that same reason.[2]
Thanks to this policy, the private sector was able to free itself from some of the government-imposed restrictions and gain many new opportunities, ultimately growing greatly.[15] However, even at this time, the private sector was essentially under the strong influence of the Syrian elite, includingal-Jama'a.[16] As a manager at the Ministry of Industry noted in an interview, the government has allowed the private sector to grow, but will not help it become too big to be easily controlled.[17] The government also did not abandon the system offive-year economic planning, although it no longer sought to implement new five-year plans in the same way as it had sought to do so previously.[18] During this period, the elite, known as the "New Class" (oral-tabaqa al-jadida), was finally able to form.[3] This campaign has become, according to some observers, an opportunity to legitimize the private sector, which is largely subordinate to businessmen close to the government.[11] Eventually,Bashar al-Assad finally abandoned the idea of building socialism (although the party continued to conduct socialist propaganda), and in 2005 he officially announced Syria's transition to a "social market economy."[18][19]
