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Allbranches of Islam agree on three holiest sites being, in descending order:Masjid al-Haram (including theKaaba) inMecca, theProphet's Mosque inMedina, andAl-Aqsa Mosque inJerusalem.[1][2][3][4][5][6] Beyond this shared consensus, different branches place varying degrees of importance on other sites.
InSunni Islam, sites associated with the founders oftheir schools, as well as some mosques, are regarded with religious significance. InShia Islam, sites associated with theImamate hold an extremely high level of significance, includingNajaf,Karbala,Mashhad,Kadhimiya,Samarra, andQom. Shrines of some Shia Imams—such asAli,Husayn, andReza—are also revered by many Sunnis, primarily due to their closefamilial connection toMuhammad and their broader importance inIslamic history.
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The Hejaz region in Saudi Arabia is where Mecca and Medina are located. It is where Muhammad was born and raised.[7] The area also includes Jabal al-Nour, which holds tremendous significance for Muslims throughout the world, as it is here where Muhammad received his first revelation of the Quran, which consisted of the first five ayat ofSurah Al-Alaq fromGabriel.
The two holiest cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina, are traditionally known as theḤaramayn, which is the dual form ofḥaram, thus meaning "The Two Sanctuaries".[8] They should not be confused with Jerusalem and Hebron, which were also called Haramain during theMamluk period.[8]
Mecca is the holiest city in Islam, as it is the birthplace of Islam, the birthplace Muhammad, and home to Islam's holiest site, Kaaba in Masjid al-Haram.[9] Only Muslims are allowed to enter the city.[10] It is the qibla (direction of prayer) of the Muslims, contains theMaqam Ibrahim,Hateem, and theAl-Hajar-ul-Aswad which belonged inParadise to Adam and Eve. According to Islam, the Kaaba was built by the first prophetAdam, then afterNoah's Flood byNūḥ (Noah). It was then rebuilt byAbraham (Ibrāhīm) and his sonIshmael (Ismāʿīl). It has been rebuilt several times. The rites of both pilgrimages includecircumambulating the Kaaba seven times. The Great Mosque contains other important sites, such as theBlack Stone, theZamzam Well, and the hills ofSafa and Marwa.
Muhammad played a central role in the restoration of the Kaaba as a monotheistic sanctuary. Prior to his prophethood, he was involved in the rebuilding of the Kaaba following flood damage around 605 CE, during which he helped resolve a dispute amongQuraysh clans by proposing that the Black Stone be placed on a cloth and lifted collectively, with Muhammad himself setting it in position. After theconquest of Mecca, Muhammad entered the Kaaba and ordered the removal of its idols, dedicating the sanctuary exclusively to the worship of God. He reaffirmed Kaaba's association with Abraham and Ishmael in Islamic tradition. From that point onward, the Kaaba became the central religious focal point of Islam and the destination of the Hajj pilgrimage. The area of Mecca, which includes Mount Arafat,Mina andMuzdalifah, is important for theḤajj ('Pilgrimage'). As one of theFive Pillars of Islam, every Muslim who is capable must perform the Hajj at least once in their lifetime.[11] Hajj is one of the largest annual Muslim gatherings in the world, second only to pilgrimages to the Shia Shrines.[12]
Mount Arafat is agranodioritehill about 20 km (12 mi) southeast of Mecca, where Muhammad stood and delivered the Farewell Sermon to his companions (Ṣaḥābah) who had accompanied him for the Hajj towards the end of his life.
Some Muslims also believe that Mount Arafat is the place where Adam and Eve reunited onEarth after falling fromHeaven, believing the mountain to be the place where they were forgiven. A pillar is erected on top of the mountain to show where this event is believed to have taken place.
The mountain is especially important during the Hajj, with the 9th day of theIslamic month ofDhu al-Hijjah, also known as theDay of 'Arafah after the mountain itself, being the day when Hajj pilgrims leaveMina for Arafat; this day is considered to be the most important day of the Hajj. Thekhuṭbah (sermon) is delivered andẓuhr andʿaṣr prayers are prayed together in the valley. The pilgrims spend the whole day on the mountain invoking God to forgive their sins.
The Prophet's Mosque is located in Medina, making the city the second holiest site in Islam, after Mecca. The mosque is the resting place of Muhammad, and where hisqabr (grave) is located. Muhammad himself was involved in the construction of the mosque.
At the time, the mosque's land belonged to two young orphans, Sahl and Suhayl, and when they learned that Muhammad wished to acquire their land to build a mosque, they went to Muhammad and offered the land to him as a gift; Muhammad insisted on paying a price for the land because they were orphaned children.
The price agreed upon was paid byAbu Ayyub al-Ansari, who thus became the endower or donor of the mosque, on behalf of Muhammad. One of the most notable features of the site is the Green Dome in the south-east corner of the mosque, originallyAisha's house, where the tomb of Muhammad is located. Many pilgrims who perform the Hajj also go to Medina to visit the Green Dome.
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The Quba Mosque, located on the outskirts of Medina, Saudi Arabia, holds the distinction of being the first mosque.[13][14] It was founded in 622 CE by Muhammad upon his arrival in the vicinity of Medina during the hijra (migration from Mecca). He is reported to have personally participated in laying its foundations, giving the mosque exceptional religious importance.[15]
The mosque is frequently mentioned in Islamic tradition due to its association with piety and ritual purity.[16] Several hadiths state that performing prayer in Quba Mosque carries special merit, and the Quran makes reference to a mosque “founded on righteousness from the first day,” which many classical commentators associate with Quba.[17]
Masjid al-Qiblatayn is located in Medina, Saudi Arabia, and is renowned for its association with a pivotal moment in Islam.
The mosque is traditionally identified as the place where Muhammad received the revelation instructing Muslims to change the direction of prayer (qibla) from Jerusalem to Mecca.[18][19] The event occurred approximately 16–17 months after the Hijra.[20]
The mosque symbolized the transition of Islam from its early phase toward a distinct religious community with Mecca as its spiritual center. For this reason, Masjid al-Qiblatayn occupies a special place in Islamic memory.
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Al-Aqsa in Jerusalem, also known as the Haram al-Sharif or theTemple Mount, is where according to Islam, Muhammad ascended bodily into heaven. It is the third-holiest site in Islam, held in esteem by all Muslims due to its history as a place of worship by many prophets such as Abraham,David,Solomon,Elijah andJesus.[21]
In early history, Muslims faced in the general direction the Temple Mount as the initial qibla (direction of prayer) before changing the direction to face the Kaaba; a result of a Quranic verse revelation to Muhammad. It is believed that expressions without a subject in verses 1–18 ofSurāh an-Najm and some verses of the 17th chapter of theQuran, commonly calledSurāh al-’Isrā’, allude to the night journey.
In 610 CE, over the night of the Isra' and Mi'raj, Muhammad was taken from the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca to visit Al-Aqsa Mosque ("the Furthest Mosque"), where he led the prayer among the prophets, and was then taken to the heavens from theFoundation Stone.[22] The "Furthest Mosque" has been mentioned in the Quran once, in verse 1 ofSurat al-Isra'.[23][24]
The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, capital city of Syria, is another holy site in Islam.[25][26] The head ofJohn the Baptist, revered in Islam as the prophetYahya, is believed to be inside the mosque, which also houses one of only four original copies of the Quran.
The Mosque is also the place where Muslims believe the prophet Isa (Jesus) will return at the end of times, atop the "Minaret of Isa" of the mosque, during the time of a Fajr prayer. Muslims and Christians alike consider the site a holy place. It is believed that prayers in the Umayyad mosque are considered to be equal to those offered in Al-Aqsa Mosque.[27]
The mosque also holds a special importance in Shia Islam since it contains shrines commemorating Husayn, whose martyrdom is frequently compared to that of John the Baptist.[28] There is a location in the mosque where Husayn's head was kept.[29] Furthermore, the surviving members of his family were imprisoned in the mosque for 60 days.[30]
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According to Islam, Hebron was where Abraham settled. Within the city lies theCave of the Patriarchs, the traditional burial site of the biblicalPatriarchs and Matriarchs in both Islam andJudaism, and the Ibrahimi Mosque, built on top of the tomb to honor Abraham, is often considered by some Sunni Muslims to be the fourth holiest site in Islam.[31][32]
Muslims believe that Muhammad visited Hebron on his night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem to stop by the tomb and pay his respects.[33] There is also a left footprint in a small niche at the mosque, believed to be from Muhammad.[34][35]
The Sinai Peninsula is associated with the prophetsHarun (Aaron) andMusa (Moses).[36] In particular, numerous references toMount Sinai exist in the Quran,[37][38] where it is calledṬūr Saināʾ,[39]Ṭūr Sīnīn,[40] andaṭ-Ṭūr[41] andal-Jabal (both meaning "the Mount").[42] As for the adjacentWād Ṭuwā (Valley of Tuwa), it is considered as beingmuqaddas[43][44] (sacred),[45][46] and a part of it is calledAl-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah ("The Blessed Place").[47]
The Great Mosque of Kairouan is one of the oldest and most important mosques. It is located in Kairouan, Tunisia, a city founded in 670 CE as the first Muslim stronghold inNorth Africa and the western Islamic world. The mosque was originally established byUqba ibn Nafi, a companion of Muhammad, during the early Umayyad period.
The mosque functioned as a major center of Sunni Islamic learning, particularly for the Maliki school of jurisprudence.[49] It played a major role comparable to later institutions such as Al-Azhar in Egypt, influencing religious scholarship throughout North Africa and al-Andalus.[50]
Architecturally, the mosque is considered a masterpiece of early Islamic architecture. It features a vast hypostyle prayer hall, one of the oldest surviving minarets in Islam, a monumental courtyard, and a richly decorated mihrab with early Islamic tilework. Its architectural style influenced mosque construction across the western Islamic world.
The shrine of Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, a close companion of Muhammad and his standard-bearer, is one of the most significant Sunni religious sites outside the Arabian Peninsula. Abu Ayyub died during theearly Muslim siege of Constantinople, and his burial place later became a focal point of Sunni reverence.[51]
Following the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the shrine gained major religious importance.[52] Ottoman sultans were traditionally girded with the Sword of Osman at this site, symbolizing their Sunni legitimacy. The site holds strong historical and cultural significance within Sunni Islam.[53]
The mosque played a role in the coronation ceremony for new Ottoman Sultans, who came here - processing along the grand Cülus Yolu (Accession Way) - to be girded with theSword of Osman at the start of their reigns.
The mosque is also important because it holds relics believed to have belonged to Muhammad.[54] Because of the holiness attached to the mosque, many Ottoman officials and royal family members chose to be buried nearby.
The tomb of Abu Hanifa, founder of the Hanafi school of Sunni jurisprudence, is a major historical site reflecting the development of Sunni thought. It is located in Baghdad, Iraq. The Hanafi school or Hanafism is the largest school of Islamic jurisprudence out of the four principal schools within Sunni Islam. Abu Hanifa’s legal methodology profoundly influenced Islamic law across the Abbasid Caliphate,Central Asia, the Ottoman Empire, andSouth Asia. His burial site became associated with scholarship and Sunni legal identity, particularly in regions where the Hanafi school predominated.[55]
The Maliki school of Sunnism was founded byMalik ibn Anas. It emphasizes the practice (ʿamal) of the people of Medina as a source of Islamic law, alongside the Quran and Hadith. In contrast to theAhl al-Hadith andAhl al-Ra'y schools of thought, the Maliki school takes a unique position known asAhl al-A'mal, in which they consider the Sunnah to be primarily sourced from the practice of the people ofMedina andliving Islamic traditions for their rulings onIslamic law. Malik is buried at Al-Baqi Cemetery in Medina. The Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia is also known since the 9th century as one of the most important Maliki centers.[56]
The al-Shafiʿi Shrine, founder of the Shafiʿi school of Sunni jurisprudence, is one of Cairo’s most important monuments. Al-Shafiʿi played a foundational role in systematizing Islamic legal theory (uṣūl al-fiqh), and his influence extends acrossEast Africa,Southeast Asia, and parts of theMiddle East.[57] His tomb became a major site of Sunni scholarly memory. The current mausoleum structure dates largely to theAyyubid and Mamluk periods.
Theburial site ofAhmad ibn Hanbal, founder of the Hanbali school of Sunni jurisprudence, holds strong significance in Sunni Islam.[58][59] Ahmad ibn Hanbal is particularly remembered for his resistance during theMihna, during which he upheld traditional Sunni doctrine against state-imposed theology. His legacy shaped Sunni creedal orthodoxy and later influenced movements such asAtharism.
The Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, Iraq, is the holiest site in Shia Islam after Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem. It contains the tomb of Ali, the first Shia Imam who was also Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. According to Shia belief, the site also contains the remains of Adam and Noah.[60] The shrine's significance in Shia Islam is profound. All Muslims revere Imam Ali, but the Shia in particular, as a paragon of justice, knowledge, and piety. His burial site has thus become a symbol of Shia identity and faith. Every year, the shrine is visited by millions of pilgrims, with attendance peaking during Arba'in, when estimates suggest more than 20 million visitors, making it one of the largest peaceful gatherings in the world.[61] Pilgrims often travel on foot from various parts of Iraq and even from neighboring countries to participate in the commemorations.[62]
In addition to Ali, the shrine complex is the resting place for several notable figures. Among them are many revered Shia scholars, jurists, and theologians. Some of the prominent figures buried here include: Murtada Ansari, a leading Shia jurist of the 19th century,[63]Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, a renowned Iraqi Shia cleric and philosopher,[64] andAbu al-Qasim al-Khoei, one of the most influential Shiamarjas of the 20th century.[65]
The shrine is also surrounded by the world's largest cemetery,Wadi al-Salam. It is believed that being buried near Imam Ali brings spiritual benefits, and many Shia Muslims request to be interred in this sacred ground.[66] Ali was buried in Najaf following thehis assassination. However, the location of his grave remained a closely-guarded secret for many years. It wasn't until the Abbasid caliphHarun al-Rashid reportedly discovered the grave during a hunting expedition in the 8th century that a shrine was built at the site.[67]
Over the centuries, the shrine has undergone numerous renovations and expansions. In the 10th century, theBuyid dynasty made significant contributions by building a large dome over the grave and adding other structures.[68] TheSafavid Empire in the 16th century also played a crucial role in further developing the shtine, adding ornate decorations, and expanding the complex.[69] The shrine is an architectural masterpiece. It is distinguished by its golden dome and minarets, which are covered with approximately 7,777 gold tiles. The complex also includes courtyards, prayer halls, and a museum. The central hall, where the tomb is located, is adorned with intricate mirror work, mosaics, and calligraphy.[70]
The mosque features a large courtyard, which is surrounded by arched colonnades. The main entrance, Bab al-Qibla, is an impressive gateway that leads directly to the inner sanctum. The interior is lavishly decorated withPersian carpets, chandeliers, and intricate stucco work, reflecting the rich artistic heritage of the region.[71] Many hadiths from the Shia Imams and from Muhammad highlight the importance of pilgrimage to this shrine.
Muhammad:“There is no sword butZulfiqar, and there is no hero but Ali. Whoever visits Ali while he is alive, it is as if he has visited me; and whoever visits him after his death, it is as if he has visited me during my lifetime.”[72]
Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, Iraq, contains the tomb the third Shia Imam, Husayn ibn Ali. The mosque stands on the site of the grave of Husayn, where he was martyred during the Battle of Karbala.[73][74] Up to 20 million pilgrims visit the city for the anniversary of Husayn's death.[75] There are many traditions which narrate the status of Karbala.
The Shrine is a site of immense religious significance in Shia Islam. It commemorates the martyrdom of Husayn, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad. This event is one of the most tragic, pivotal and defining moments in Islamic history, especially for Shia Muslims, as it symbolizes the struggle against injustice. Husayn, along with his family and companions, was martyred by the forces of the Umayyad caliphYazid. The battle took place on the plains of Karbala, and Husayn’s stand against Yazid’s oppressive regime has since been revered as a symbol of resistance and martyrdom.
Following the martyrdom, the site of Husayn's grave became a major place of pilgrimage. The first structure over his grave was constructed by the order ofal-Mukhtar in the late 7th century.[76] The Shrine is renowned for its stunning architecture and intricate decorations. The complex includes a golden dome, several minarets, and expansive courtyards. The central dome is adorned with gold-plated tiles, and the interior features elaborate mirror work, mosaics, and calligraphy that depict verses from the Quran and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Imams.[77]
The main courtyard is surrounded by arched porticos and serves as a gathering place for pilgrims to offer prayers and recite elegies. The shrine also includes a museum that houses artifacts related to Husayn and the Battle of Karbala, as well as a library with a vast collection of Islamic manuscripts and texts. The annual Arba'in pilgrimage, which marks the end of the 40-day mourning period for Husayn, draws millions of visitors from around the world. During Arba'in, pilgrims often walk long distances, sometimes covering hundreds of miles, to reach Karbala. This pilgrimage is considered an act of devotion and solidarity with the sacrifices made by Husayn and his companions.
In addition to Arba'in, other significant occasions that draw large crowds to the shrine include Ashura, which is the commemoration date of Husayn's martyrdom, and the birthdays and martyrdom anniversaries of other Shia Imams. The shrine also plays a central role in commemorating various religious events and serves as a hub for religious learning and scholarship. Many hadiths from the Shia Imams and from Muhammad highlight the importance of pilgrimage to this shrine.
Muhammad:"Whoever visits the grave of Hussein on the banks of theEuphrates, it is as if they have visited God Himself.Know that prayers are answered beneath the dome of his shrine, healing is found in his soil, and the Imams are from his offspring. Karbala is the purest shrine on earth and, in terms of reverence, the greatest of all shrines; indeed, Karbala is truly one of the courts of Paradise, an exceptional land that has always been the dome of Islam, just as God saved the faithful companions of Prophet Noah in that very place from the flood."[78]
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Al-Abbas Shrine in Karbala, Iraq, is the mausoleum of Abbas ibn Ali, a son of Ali, the half-brother of both Hasan and Husayn, and a key figure in the Battle of Karbala. Abbas is revered for his loyalty and bravery, and his shrine is one of the holiest sites in Shia Islam, attracting millions of pilgrims, especially during the annual commemoration of Arba'een.[79] Pilgrims from around the world visit the shrine to pay their respects and seek intercession. Abbas ibn Ali, also known as Abu al-Fadl, was a respected warrior known for his unwavering support of his brother Husayn. He played a crucial role in the Battle of Karbala, where he was martyred while attempting to fetch water for the thirsty children and companions of Husayn. His sacrifice is deeply commemorated, and his shrine stands as a symbol of devotion and courage.[80]
The construction of the shrine began in the early Islamic period, with significant contributions from various rulers. The earliest recorded construction was during the Abbasid Caliphate, with later renovations and expansions by the Safavid and Qajar dynasties.[81] The shrine is an architectural marvel, featuring a grand golden dome and two towering minarets, which are visible from miles away. It includes several courtyards, prayer halls, and a museum. The central hall, where the tomb is located, is lavishly decorated with intricate tile work, mirror mosaics, and calligraphy depicting verses from the Quran and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Imams.[82]
The shrine is surrounded by spacious courtyards that can accommodate the influx of pilgrims during major religious events. The main entrance, known as Bab al-Qibla, is an ornate gateway that leads to the inner sanctum. Inside, the walls are adorned with elaborate stucco and mirror work. The Shrine is a beacon of faith and a testament to the enduring legacy of Abbas ibn Ali. It stands as a symbol of loyalty, bravery, and the eternal struggle for justice, drawing millions of devotees who seek solace and inspiration from his exemplary life.
The Great Mosque of Kufa is one of the earliest surviving mosques in the world. The mosque was home to Ali and the site of his assassination. It also contains the shrine ofMuslim ibn Aqeel, his companionHani ibn Urwa, and the revolutionary Al-Mukhtar. The mosque has been significantly rebuilt and restored multiple times in its history.
Masjid al-Kufa is believed to have been built in the 7th century. It is one of the four major mosques that Shia Muslims consider to be significant. According to Shia Islam, the mosque was constructed by Adam, with subsequent renovations by Noah, Abraham, and Ishmael.
The mosque holds immense religious significance for Shia Muslims. It was the place where Ali used to lead prayers and deliver sermons. The mosque is the site where he was struck in the head with a poison-coated sword byAbd al-Rahman ibn Muljam during the month ofRamadan in 661 CE.[83] Ali was prostrating in theFajr prayer when ibn Muljam struck him. The mosque is a significant pilgrimage site for Shia Muslims, especially during the anniversary of Imam Ali's death and other important Islamic events. Pilgrims visit the mosque to pay their respects, pray, and reflect on its spiritual significance.[84]
Jannat al-Baqi in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is a cemetery founded by Muhammad that holds the graves of several of his family members and companions. Among them are the four Shia Imams: Hasan, al-Sajjad, al-Baqir, and al-Sadiq. When Muhammad arrived in Medina from Mecca in September 622 CE, al-Baqi was a land covered with boxthorn. After Muhammad’s arrival, the houses of Medina developed near al-Baqi', which was therefore considered the public tomb. The bramble growth was cleared, and the place was consecrated to be the future cemetery of the Muslims who died in Medina.
During the construction of the Prophet’s Mosque on the site Muhammad purchased from two orphan children after his migration from Mecca to Medina,As'ad ibn Zurarah, one of Muhammad's companions, died. Muhammad chose the spot to be a cemetery, and As'ad was the first individual to be buried in al-Baqi' among theAnsar. While Muhammad was outside Medina for theBattle of Badr, his daughterRuqayyah fell ill and died in 624. She was buried in al-Baqi'. Ruqayyah was the first person from the Ahl al-Bayt (Household of Muhammad) to be buried in this cemetery. Shortly after Muhammad arrived from Badr,Uthman bin Maz'oon died in 624 CE and was buried in al-Baqi'. He was considered the first companion of Muhammad from theMuhajirun to be buried in the cemetery.
When his youngest son Ibrahim died, Muhammad commanded that he be buried there as well. Following his instructions, two of his daughtersZainab andUmm Kulthum, were also buried near the grave of Uthman bin Maz'oon. Initially, the third caliph, Uthman, was buried in the large neighbouring Jewish graveyard. The first expansion of al-Baqi' was carried out byMuawiyah I, the first Umayyad caliph. To honor Uthman, Muawiyah incorporated the extensive Jewish cemetery into al-Baqi’s burial grounds. The Umayyad Caliphate constructed the first dome over Uthman’s grave in al-Baqi’. Over time, numerous domes and structures were built or reconstructed over various graves in al-Baqi’. The cemetery was demolished under theEmirate of Diriyah in 1806. After their reconstruction, they were again demolished in 1926 under theSultanate of Nejd, in accordance with theirWahhabi interpretation of Islamic law. These demolitions were condemned across the Islamic world, but the Saudi government has rejected calls for reconstruction.[85][86]
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The Imam Reza Shrine is the mausoleum of Ali al-Rida, the eighth Shia Imam, located in Mashhad, the province ofRazavi Khorasan, Iran.[87] As one of theholiest sites in Shia Islam, nearly 30 million Muslims makingpilgrimages to the shrine every year,[88][89][90] the most visited site in Islam.[91][92]
Imam Reza was a descendant of Muhammad, known for his piety and learning. His lineage traces back to Ali via Muhammad's daughter Fatima, from their sons Hasan and Husayn. He is also part of the chain of mystical authority andasceticism in Sunni Sufism, making him widely respected in Sunni Islam as well. TheUyoun Akhbar Al-Ridha recorded miracles which have occurred at the shrine.[93]
The shrine covers an area of 1,200,000 square meters, making it the world's third largest mosque, after Masjid al-Haram in Mecca and the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. The complex is also on thetentative list ofUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites.Also buried within the shrine are the members of theTimurid, Safavid andQajar family members, alongside the Abbasid caliphHarun al-Rashid, polymathBaha al-Din al-Amili, crown princeAbbas Mirza, and many other notable political figures, scholars, and clerics.
In the early 9th century, the Abbasid caliphAl-Ma'mun invited Reza from Medina toKhorasan and appointed him as his heir apparent, a move widely interpreted as an attempt to legitimize Abbasid rule and contain Shia influence. Imam Reza died in 818 CE in the city ofTus, allegedly poisoned by al-Ma'mun.
The site of his grave became a major destination for pilgrimage, and the surrounding settlement gradually developed around his tomb, creating a new city called Mashhad, meaning “place of martyrdom.” The earliest structures around the shrine date back to the 9th century, with significant patronage and expansion carried out during various periods, including by theSamanid,Seljuk,Ilkhanid,Timurid,Afsharid, Safavid, andQajar Empires, and it is still expanding today.[94]
The shrine is renowned for its vast scale, architectural grandeur, artistic richness, and spiritual atmosphere. The architecture of the shrine represents a blend ofPersian andIslamic traditions. The complex features a prominent golden dome, multiple minarets, and numerous courtyards (sahn), prayer halls (riwaq). The central sanctuary houses the Imam's grave beneath the gilded dome. The interior of the shrine is richly decorated with mirror work, tile mosaics, stucco carvings, and intricate calligraphy featuring Quranic verses and religious inscriptions.
The shrine is an unmistakable landmark in Iran and Shia history, with the city of Mashhad regarded as the country's spiritual capital. TheGoharshad Mosque, built by Timurid EmpressGoharshad in 1418 CE, is also located at the shrine. TheAstan Quds Razavi Central Museum, a library, four seminaries, a cemetery, and the Razavi University of Islamic Sciences, are contained within the complex as well. The shrine also serves as a major center for religious ceremonies, gatherings, and educational activities, attracting scholars and students from across theIslamic world.
Several hadiths from the Shia Imams and from Muhammad highlight the importance of pilgrimage to this shrine. A hadith from Muhammad says: "One of my own flesh and blood will be buried in the land of Khorasan. God the Highest will surely remove the sorrows of any sorrowful person who goes on pilgrimage to his shrine. God will surely forgive the sins of any sinful person who goes on pilgrimage to his shrine."[95]
The Al-Kazimiyya Mosque, located in the Kādhimiya suburb of Baghdad, Iraq, contains the tombs of the seventh and ninth Shia Imams, Musa al-Kazim and his grandson Muhammad al-Jawad. Also buried within the premises are scholarsShaykh Mufīd andShaykh Naṣīr ad-Dīn aṭ-Ṭūsi. Directly adjacent to the mosque are two smaller shrines, belonging to the brothersSayyid Raḍī (who compiledNahjul-Balāghah) andSayyid Murtadā and Qadi Abu Yusuf al-Ansari.
The mosque was built on the site of a Quraysh cemetery, which was created with the originalRound City of Baghdad in 762 CE. The cemetery was founded by Abbasid Caliphal-Mansur so that members of his family and internment can be buried in it. It is generally believed thatZubaidah bint Ja'far and al-Mansur himself were also buried in this location. The current building dates to the restoration carried out by the Safavid Iranian kingIsmail I from 1502 to 1524. It was further ornamented by the Ottoman SultanSuleiman the Magnificent after heconquered Baghdad in 1534.
Al-Askari Shrine in the city of Samarra, Iraq, containts the tomb of the 10th and 11th Shia Imams, al-Hādī and his son al-'Askarī.[96] Housed in the mosque are also the tombs ofḤakīma Khātūn, sister of al-Hādī; andNarjis Khātūn, the mother of al-Mahdī.[97] Adjacent to the mosque is another domed commemorative building, theSerdab ("cistern"), built over the cistern where the Twelfth Imam, Muḥammad al-Mahdī, first entered theMinor Occultation or "hidden from the view"—whence the other title of the Mahdi, the Hidden Imam.
The Imams 'Alī al-Hādī and Haṣan al-'Askarī lived under house arrest in the part of Samarra that had been Caliphal-Mu'tasim's military camp ('Askar al-Mu‘tasim), hence an inmate of the camp was called an ('Askarī). As a result, they are known as the'Askariyyayn. They died and were buried in their house on Abī Ahmad Street near the mosque built by Mu'tasim. A later tradition attributes their deaths to poison.
The Iranian kingNasir al-Din Shah Qajar added the shrine's golden dome in 1868. Adjacent to the mosque is another domed commemorative building, built over the cistern where the Twelfth Imam, al-Mahdī, first entered theMinor Occultation or "hidden from the view"—whence the other title of the Mahdi, the Hidden Imam.
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The Fatima Masumeh Shrine in Qom, Iran, is considered to be the most sacred city in Shia Islam after Najaf, Karbala, Mashhad, Samarra and Kadhimiya. Fatima Masumeh was the daughter of the seventh Shia Imam, Musa al-Kazim, and the sister of the eighth Shia Imam, Reza. In Shia Islam, women are often revered as saints if they are close relatives to one of the Imams. Fatima Masumeh is therefore honored as a saint, and her shrine in Qom is one of the most significant Shia shrines, a major destination for pilgrimage.
Every year, millions travel to Qom to honor Fatima Masumeh and seek her intercession with God.Also buried within the shrine are three daughters of the ninth Imamal-Taqi, Persian poetParvin Etesami, six members of the Safavid family, eleven members of the Qajar family, and many other notable political figures, scholars, and clerics. The shrine has attracted dozens of seminaries and religious schools.
In 816, when her brother Imam Reza was summoned to Khorasan, Fatima set out to join his brother inMerv but fell ill along the way in the Sunni town ofSaveh. There she asked to be taken to the nearby Shia town of Qom, where she died a few days later, possibly after seventeen days. A local Shia figure by the name of Musa ibn Khazraj al-Ash'ari brought Fatima to Qom and hosted her during her final days.
The Shah Cheragh in Shiraz, Fars province, Iran, is the mausoleum of Ahmad ibn Musa, a son of the seventh Shia Imam Musa al-Kazim and a brother of the eighth Shia Imam Reza, who is known as Shah Cheragh (King of Light) in local traditions, and hence the building's name.[98][99][100] The complex is one of the holiest sites in Twelver Shia Islam. Following the Abbasid persecution of the Shi'ite sect, Sayyid Ahmad ibn Musa (also known as Syed Amir Ahmad) and his brother,Muhammad ibn Musa al-Kazim, both of whom were brothers of Reza, took refuge in Shiraz.
The first structure over his grave, a simple domed mausoleum, was built in the 13th century during the rule of theSalghurids, by the minister, a former Buyid prince, attributed to Atabak Sa'ad Ebn-e-Zangi. Local folklore tells that the grave was found when a light appeared over it, which caught the attention of the people, who told the minister about what they had seen. The tombs of both brothers became celebrated pilgrimage destinations since the 14th century.
The Shāh Abdol-Azīm Shrine in Tehran, Iran, contains the tomb of ‘Abdul ‘Adhīm ibn ‘Abdillāh al-Hasanī (aka Shah Abdol Azim). He was a fifth generation descendant of Hasan ibn ‘Alī and a companion of Muhammad al-Taqī.
Adjacent to the shrine, within the complex, are the mausolea of Imamzadeh Tahir (a son of the fourth Shia Imam Sajjad) and Imamzadeh Hamzeh (a brother of the eighth Imām – Imam Reza). Shah Abdol Azim was sent to Ray by Imam Reza.
The complex is one of the holiest sites in Twelver Shi'ism. Abdol Azim migrated to Ray out of persecution and subsequently died there. A piece of paper was found in his pocket outlining his ancestry as being: "Abdul ‘Adhīm son of ‘Abdillāh son of ‘Alī son of Hasan son of Zayd son of Hasan ibn ‘Alī."
The Jamkaran Mosque in the village ofJamkaran, on the outskirts of Qom, Iran, is where Twelver belief holds that the 12th Shia Imam—the promised Mahdi according to Twelvers—once appeared and offered prayers.[101] Many Shia Muslims go to this mosque on Wednesday nights and the night of the middle ofSha'ban - the birthday of Mahdi - and perform its rituals. The mosque has a history of over a thousand years, and receives more than 15 million pilgrims annually.[102][103]
It was further developed after the residents of Ghadiriyah from theBani Asad tribe fled to Qom, during the Mukhtar uprising in Kufa (685 CE). The mosque has been a sacred place at least since 17th of Ramadan of 373 AH (983/984 CE), when Sheikh Hassan ibn Muthlih Jamkarani reportedly met the Twelfth Imam along with the prophetAl-Khidr. Jamkarani was instructed that the land they were on was "noble" and that the owner, Hasan bin Muslim, was to cease cultivating it and finance the building of a mosque on it from the earnings he had accumulated from farming the land.
Sometime in the decade of 1995–2005, the mosque's reputation spread, and many pilgrims, particularly young people, began to come to it. In the rear of the mosque, there is a "well of requests" where it is believed the Twelfth Imam once "became miraculously unhidden for a brief shining moment of loving communion with his creator." Pilgrims tie small strings in a knot around the grids covering the holy well, which they hope will be received by Imam Mahdi. Every morning custodians cut off the strings from the previous day.
Historically, the most important place in Ismailism was Cairo during the Fatimid period. When the Fatimids established their caliphate in the 10th century, they ruled as Ismaili leaders. Al-Azhar Mosque and University was founded specifically to teach Ismaili theology, philosophy, and law, and it functioned as the intellectual heart of the Ismailism. Al-Azhar remains the single most powerful symbol of Ismaili achievement, representing the only time Ismailism governed a major Islamic empire.
After its dedication in 972, and with the hiring by mosque authorities of 35 scholars in 989, the mosque slowly developed into what it is today. Over the course of its over a millennium-long history, the mosque has been alternately neglected and highly regarded. Because it was founded as a Shiite Ismaili institution,Saladin and the Sunni Ayyubid dynasty that he founded shunned al-Azhar, removing its status as a congregational mosque and denyingstipends to students and teachers at its school.
These moves were reversed under theMamluk Sultanate, under whose rule numerous expansions and renovations took place. Later rulers of Egypt showed differing degrees of deference to the mosque and provided widely varying levels of financial assistance, both to the school and to the upkeep of the mosque. Today, al-Azhar remains a deeply influential institution in Egyptian society that is highly revered and a symbol of Islamic Egypt.
Al-Hakim Mosque is important to Ismailism because it comes from the period when Ismaili leaders ruled openly as caliphs. It was built under the Fatimid Imamate in Cairo and functioned as a major state mosque and teaching center for Ismaili doctrine. It represents a time when Ismailism was not a minority tradition but the ideological core of a powerful empire. Teaching there was tied directly to the Fatimid daʿwa.
Architecturally, the mosque consists of ahypostyle prayer hall and a wide internal courtyard (sahn), accessed via a projecting entranceportal. Its most notable features are its two unusualminarets: the original minarets of the mosque have ornate multi-tiered designs but, for reasons that remain unclear, these were encased shortly afterwards inside the massive square bastions still seen today.
Alawites are anethnoreligious group, an offshoot of Shia Islam as aghulat branch during the ninth century. Alawites venerate Ali, the first Imam, as a manifestation of the divine essence. It is the onlyghulat sect still in existence today. The group was founded during the ninth century byIbn Nusayr, who was a disciple of the tenth Imam, Ali al-Hadi, and of the eleventh Imam, Hasan al-Askari.
The Quran is one of their holy books, but its interpretation differs significantly from the mainstream Shia Muslims and aligns with earlyBatiniyya. Alawite theology and rituals differ sharply from Shia Islam in several important ways. For instance, various Alawite rituals involve the drinking ofwine and the sect does not prohibitthe consumption of alcohol for its adherents. As a creed that teaches the symbolic/esoteric reading ofQur'anic verses, Alawite theology is based on the belief inreincarnation and views Ali as a divine incarnation of God. Moreover, Alawite clergy and scholarships insist that their religion is theologically distinct from Shia Islam.
Alawites have historically kept their beliefs secret from outsiders and non-initiated Alawites, so rumours about them have arisen. At the core of the Alawite creed is the belief in a divine Trinity, comprising three aspects of the one God. The aspects of the Trinity areMana (meaning),Ism (Name) andBab (Door). Alawite beliefs hold that theseemanations underwentre-incarnation cyclically seven times in human form throughout history. According to Alawites, the seventh incarnation of the trinity consists of Ali, Muhammad himself, and Salman the Persian. An important component of Alawism is the belief in thetransfer of souls, rejected by both the Shia and Sunni, leading to the Alawites being considered heretics by theologians of Sunni and Shia Islam.
Khidr holds special spiritual and mystical significance. Unlike mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam, Alawite theology incorporates esoteric interpretations of Qur’anic figures, and Khidr is viewed as a hidden, eternal guide, a spiritual intermediary, and a source of divine wisdom.
Zayd ibn ʿAlī was the son of Ali ibn al-Husayn Zayn al-Abidin, and great-grandson of Ali. He ledan unsuccessful revolt against the Umayyad Caliphate, in which he died. The event gave rise to the Zaydiyya sect of Shia Islam, which holds him as the next Imam after his father Ali ibn al-Husayn Zayn al-Abidin. Zayd ibn Ali is also seen as a major religious figure by many Sunnis and was supported by the prominent Sunni jurist, Abu Hanifa, who issued a fatwa in support of Zayd against the Umayyads.
To Twelver and Isma'ili Shias however, his elder half-brother Muhammad al-Baqir is seen as the next Imam. Nevertheless, he is considered an important revolutionary figure by Shias and a martyr (shaheed) by all schools of Islam, including Sunnis and Shias. The call for revenge for his death, and for the brutal display of his body, contributed to theAbbasid Revolution.
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The Shrine of Muʿin al-Din Chishti, better known as Ajmer Sharif in Rajasthan, India, is the most important Sufi site in South Asia. Muʿin al-Din Chishti founded the Chishti Order in India.[104]
The shrine is significant and it is one of the most popular sites of religious visitation for Sufis in theIndian subcontinent that can attract up to 20,000 pilgrims per day, swelling to hundred of thousands on Chishti'surs.
The shrine became a center of spiritual devotion, learning, and social gathering. People visit to seek baraka, spiritual blessings, and guidance, reflecting the inclusive and devotional nature of Chishti Sufism.
The shrine’s significance comes from the saint’s life, teachings, and ongoing veneration. Over centuries, Ajmer Sharif Shrine has grown into a major pilgrimage site, drawing millions annually.
Data Darbar is the shrine of Ali Hujwiri, also known as Data Ganj Bakhsh, one of the most revered Sufi saints in South Asia. Located in Lahore, Pakistan, it is considered the oldest Sufi shrine in the region.[105]
The site is considered to be the most sacred place in Lahore, and attracts up to one million visitors to its annualurs festival.[106] It is a major cultural and spiritual hub, and is the largest Sufi shrine in South Asia.
The Shrine of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar is located in Sehwan, Sindh, Pakistan, and is one of the most important Sufi sites in South Asia.[107]
The vibrant rituals at the shrine reflect the inclusive, ecstatic, and transformative nature of Qalandari Sufism, making it a cornerstone of Sufi heritage in Sindh and beyond. The shrine is one of the most important in Pakistan, and attracts up to one million visitors annually.[108]
The shrine's construction was started under the reign ofShah Tughluq, who ordered that the saint's remains be enshrined in Sehwan. The tomb complex was built in 1356 CE.
In 1639, the shrine was greatly expanded under the rule ofMirza Jani of theTarkhan dynasty. Though the shrine was founded centuries ago, its popularity expanded in the late 20th century.
The shrine is considered to be the chief shrine formalangs andqalandars who follow the teachings ofLal Shahbaz Qalandar. TheShrine of Ibrahim inBhadresar in the Indian state ofGujarat is believed by some locals there to be the resting place of Lal Shahbaz.
The Mausoleum of Abdul-Qadir Gilani in Baghdad is one of the most important Sufi sites in the Islamic world. Abdul-Qadir Gilani was the founder of the Qadiriyya order, which became one of the largest and most influential Sufi orders across the Middle East,South Asia, and beyond.
The library, known as Qadiriyya Library, houses rare old works related toIslamic studies.[109] The son of the entombed scholar,Abdul Razzaq al-Gilani, is also buried there.
Devotees visit to seek guidance, and inspiration from the saint’s life and teachings. Today, the site continues to attract pilgrims from around the world, serving both as a symbol of spiritual authority and a hub for the Qadiriyya Sufi network.
The Shrine of Bahauddin Zakariya is located in Multan, Pakistan, and is one of the most important Sufi sites in the region. Bahauddin Zakariya was a leading figure of the Suhrawardi Sufi order and played a key role in spreading Islam in Punjab.
Bahauddin Zakariya emphasized piety, scholarship, and social welfare, and his shrine continues to reflect these values.
Over time, it became not just a religious site, but also a cultural and social hub, hosting annual festivals and drawing devotees from across Pakistan and beyond, making it a cornerstone of Sufism in the region.
It considered to be one of the most importantMuslim shrines in the wider Punjab region, and is the prototype for Multan's classical architectural style.[110]
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The Shah Jalal Dargah is located in Sylhet, Bangladesh, and is the shrine of Shah Jalal, a celebrated Sufi saint who played a central role in spreading Islam in the Bengal region. He belonged to a mystical tradition that emphasized spiritual discipline, devotion, and service to the community.
The site, known as adargah, was originally constructedc. 1500, though many additions and alterations were made to its structures over the following centuries.
It became a religious centre in the region, respected across multiple ruling administrations and greatly venerated amongBengalis, with local folklore and legends developing around it.
The extensive surrounding compound serves several functions and includes four mosques, areligious school and a public cemetery among others. The Dargah is presently the largest and most visited religious site in Bangladesh.
TheHazrat Nizamuddin Dargah is located inDelhi, India, and is the tomb ofNizamuddin Auliya, one of the most revered saints of the Chishti Sufi order.
Nizamuddin Auliya emphasized love, humility, service to humanity, and devotion to God, which made his teachings widely influential across northern India and beyond.
His influence extends beyond India: the Dargah has shaped Sufi practices, devotional music, and spiritual traditions across South Asia.[111][112] Today, it is one of the most visited and important Sufi shrines in the world.[113]
Ibadism is the third branch of Islam whose roots go back to theKharijite secession from Ali. Ibadi Muslims are known as the Ibadis or, as they call themselves, 'The People of Truth and Integrity'.
In Ibadi Islam, there is no formal doctrine of sacred shrines or saint-centered holy sites. Like all Muslims, they recognize Mecca, Medina and Al-Aqsa Mosque as holy. Beyond the three universally sacred sites, Ibadism does not promote pilgrimage to shrines or mosques.
As a result, mosques in Ibadi communities—such as those inOman,Libya,Tanzania, Tunisia,Dominican Republic, andAlgeria—are valued primarily as centers of communal worship. Ibadis are far less numerous than the two largest Muslim denominations: Sunnis and Shias. Ibadi Islam remain understudied by outsiders, including both non-Muslims and Sunni/Shia Muslims.
Ahmadiyya is an Islamic messianic movement originating inBritish India in the late 19th century. It was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, who said he had been divinely appointed as both the promisedMessiah and Mahdi expected by Muslims to appear towards theend times and bring about, by peaceful means, the final triumph of Islam; as well as to embody, in this capacity, the expected eschatological figure of other major religious traditions. Adherents of the Ahmadiyya—a term adopted expressly in reference to Muhammad's alternative nameAhmad — are known as Ahmadi Muslims or simply Ahmadis.
Ahmadi thought emphasises the belief that Islam is the final dispensation for humanity as revealed to Muhammad and the necessity of restoring it to its true intent and pristine form, which had been lost through the centuries. Its adherents consider Ahmad to have appeared as the Mahdi—bearing the qualities ofJesus in accordance with their reading of scriptural prophecies—to revitalise Islam and set in motion its moral system that would bring about lasting peace. They believe that upon divine guidance he purged Islam of foreign accretions in belief and practice by championing what is, in their view, Islam's original precepts as practised by Muhammad and the early Muslim community. Ahmadis thus view themselves as leading the propagation and renaissance of Islam.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad established the Community on 23 March 1889 by formally acceptingallegiance from his supporters. Since his death, the Community has been led by a succession ofCaliphs. Ahmadiyya's recognition of Ahmad as a prophet has been characterised as heretical by mainstream Muslims (Sunnis and Shias), who believe that Muhammad was thefinal prophet, and the Ahmadi movement has faced non-recognition,takfir, andpersecution in many parts of the world. The movement is almost entirely a single group. Ahmadiyya Muslims fully recognize Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem as holy sites, just like Sunni and Shia Muslims.
Quranism, or Quran-only Islam, is a movement that accepts the Quran as the sole source of religious authority and rejects Hadith literature as binding. Because of this emphasis on scripture rather than tradition, Quranism does not have shrines, tombs, or pilgrimage sites comparable to those in Sunni and Shia Islam. The Quranists do recognize Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem as sacred due to their Quranic significance. Quranism is an Islamic denomination that considers the Quran to be the only dependable religious text. Quranist Muslims believe that the Qur'an is clear and complete and can be fully understood without recourse to external sources. The extent to which Quranists reject the authenticity of the Sunnah varies, though the most established groups of Quranism have thoroughlycriticised andrejected the Hadith, the most prevalent being the Quranist claim that the Hadith is not mentioned in the Qur'an as a source ofIslamic theology or practise, was not recorded in written form until two centuries after the death of Muhammad, and contains perceived errors and contradictions. Quranists also believe thatprevious revelations of God have beenaltered, and that the Qur'an is the only book of God that has valid divine significance.
As they believe that Hadith, while not being reliable sources of religion, can serve as historical records, Quranists cite some early Islamic writings in support of their positions, including those attributed to Muhammad, caliphUmar (r. 634–644) and materials dating to the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates. Modern scholarship holds that controversy over the sufficiency of the Qur'an as the only source of Islamic law and doctrine dates back to the early centuries of Islam, where some scholars introduced followers of the Qur'an alone asMu'tazilites or sects of theKharijites, such as theHaruri and theAzariqa. Though the Qur'an-only view waned during theclassical Islamic period, it re-emerged and thrived with themodernist thinkers of the 19th century in Egypt and theIndian subcontinent. Some scholars hold that Quranism in the early 20th century was influenced by theSalafi movement. Quranism has since taken onpolitical, reformist,fundamentalist, andmilitant dimensions in various countries. Currently, it is reported that the Quranists encompasses tens of thousands to potentially a million followers globally.
In matters of faith, jurisprudence, and legislation, Quranists differ fromAhl al-Hadith, who consider the Hadith (Kutub al-Sittah) in addition to the Quran. Unlike Sunnis and Shias, Quranists argue that Islam can be practised without the Hadith. Whereas Hadith-followers believe that obedience to Muhammad entails obedience to Hadiths, Quranists believe that obedience to Muhammad means obedience to the Qur'an. In addition, several extra-Quranic traditions, such as kissing theBlack Stone, the symbolicStoning of the Devil, and theTashahhud during theṢalāh, are regarded as idolatry (shirk) or possible idolatry by Quranists. This methodological difference has led to considerable divergence between Quranists and both Sunnis and Shias in matters of theology and law as well as the understanding of the Quran.
Al 'Aqsa is the second oldest mosque in Islam after the Kaaba in Mecca and is third in holiness after the mosques in Mecca and Medina. It holds up to 400,000 worshippers at one time.
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