| Al-Azhar Mosque | |
|---|---|
الجامع الأزهر | |
.jpg) | |
| Religion | |
| Affiliation | Islam |
| Branch/tradition | Sunni Islam[a] |
| Leadership | Ahmad al-Tayyeb |
| Location | |
| Location | Cairo,Egypt |
| Geographic coordinates | 30°02′45″N31°15′46″E / 30.045709°N 31.262683°E /30.045709; 31.262683 |
| Architecture | |
| Type | Mosque |
| Style | Islamic architecture,Fatimid,Mamluk |
| Date established | 972 |
| Specifications | |
| Capacity | 20,000 |
| Minaret(s) | 5 |
| Site area | 15,600 m2 (168,000 sq ft)[1] |
Al-Azhar Mosque (Arabic:الجامع الأزهر,romanized: al-Jāmiʿ al-ʾAzhar,lit. 'The Resplendent Congregational Mosque',Egyptian Arabic:جامع الأزهر,romanized: Gāmiʿ el-ʾazhar), known in Egypt simply asal-Azhar, is amosque inCairo, Egypt in thehistoric Islamic core of the city. Commissioned as the new capital of theFatimid Caliphate in 970, it was the first mosque established in a city that eventually earned the nickname "the City of a ThousandMinarets".[b] Its name is usually thought to derive fromaz-Zahrāʾ (lit. 'the shining one'), a title given toFatimah, the daughter ofMuhammad.
After its dedication in 972, and with the hiring by mosque authorities of 35scholars in 989, the mosque slowly developed into what it is today.
The affiliatedAl-Azhar University is the second oldest continuously run one in the world afterAl-Qarawiyyin inIdrisidFes. It has long been regarded as the foremost institution in the Islamic world for the study of Sunnitheology andsharia, or Islamic law. In 1961, the university, integrated within the mosque as part of amosque school since its inception, was nationalized and officially designated an independent university,Al-Azhar Al-Sharif, following theEgyptian Revolution of 1952.
Over the course of its over a millennium-long history, the mosque has been alternately neglected and highly regarded. Because it was founded as aShiite Ismaili institution,Saladin and theSunni Ayyubid dynasty that he founded shunned al-Azhar, removing its status as a congregational mosque and denyingstipends to students and teachers at its school. These moves were reversed under theMamluk Sultanate, under whose rule numerous expansions and renovations took place. Later rulers of Egypt showed differing degrees of deference to the mosque and provided widely varying levels of financial assistance, both to the school and to the upkeep of the mosque. Today, al-Azhar remains a deeply influential institution in Egyptian society that ishighly revered in the SunniMuslim world and a symbol of Islamic Egypt.
The city of Cairo was established by the Fatimid generalJawhar al-Siqilli, on behalf of theFatimid caliphal-Mu'izz, following theFatimid conquest of Egypt in 969. It was originally namedal-Manṣūriyya (المنصورية) after the prior seat of the Fatimid caliphate,al-Mansuriyya in modernTunisia. The mosque, first used in 972, may have initially been namedJāmiʿ al-Manṣūriyya (جامع المنصورية, "the mosque of Mansuriyya"), as was common practice at the time. It was al-Mu'izz who renamed the cityal-Qāhira (القاهرة, "the Victorious"). The name of the mosque thus becameJāmiʿ al-Qāhira (جامع القاهرة, "the mosque of Cairo"), the first transcribed in Arabic sources.[2]
The mosque acquired its current name,al-ʾAzhar, sometime between thecaliphate of al-Mu'izz and the end of the reign of the second Fatimid caliph in Egypt,al-Aziz Billah (r. 975–996).[2]ʾAzhar is the masculine form forzahrāʾ, meaning "splendid" or "most resplendent".Zahrāʾ is anepithet applied to Muhammad's daughterFatimah,[3] wife of caliphAli. She was claimed as the ancestress of al-Mu'izz and theimams of theFatimid dynasty; one theory is that her epithet is the source for the nameal-ʾAzhar.[4][5] The theory, however, is not confirmed in any Arabic source and its plausibility has been both supported and denied by later Western sources.[6]
An alternative theory is that the mosque's name is derived from the names given by the Fatimid caliphs to theirpalaces. Those near the mosque were collectively namedal-Quṣūr al-Zāhira (القصور الزاهرة, "the Brilliant Palaces") by al-Aziz Billah, and the royal gardens were named after another derivative of the wordzahra. The palaces had been completed and named prior to the mosque changing its name fromJāmiʿ al-Qāhira toal-ʾAzhar.[2][7]
The wordJāmiʿ is derived from the Arabic root wordjamaʿa (g-m-ʿ), meaning "to gather". The word is used for large congregational mosques. While inclassical Arabic the name for al-Azhar remainsJāmiʿ al-ʾAzhar, the pronunciation of the wordJāmiʿ changes toGāmaʿ inEgyptian Arabic.[c]
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After the conquest of Egypt, Jawhar al-Siqilli oversaw the construction of the royal enclosure for the caliph's court and the Fatimid army, and had al-Azhar built as a base to spread Isma'iliShi'a Islam.[9] Located near the densely populated Sunni city ofFustat, Cairo became the center of the Isma'ili sect of Shi'a Islam, and seat of the Fatimid empire.[10]
Jawhar ordered the construction of a congregational mosque for the new city and work commenced on April 4, 970.[6] The mosque was completed in 972 and the firstFriday prayers were held there on June 22, 972 duringRamadan.[6]
Al-Azhar soon became a center of learning in the Islamic world, and official pronouncements and court sessions were issued from and convened there.[9] Under Fatimid rule, the previously secretive teachings of the Isma'ilimadh'hab (school of law) were made available to the general public.[11]Al-Nu'man ibn Muhammad was appointedqadi (judge) under al-Mu'izz and placed in charge of the teaching of the Isma'ili doctrine.[11] Classes were taught at thepalace of the caliph, as well as at al-Azhar, with separate sessions available to women.[12][13] DuringEid al-Fitr in 973, the mosque was rededicated by the caliph as the official congregational mosque in Cairo. Al-Mu'izz, and his son—when he in turn became caliph—would preach at least one Fridaykhutbah (sermon) duringRamadan at al-Azhar.[14]
Yaqub ibn Killis, a polymath, jurist and the first officialvizier of the Fatimids, made al-Azhar a key center for instruction in Islamic law in 988.[15] The following year, 45 scholars were hired to give lessons, laying the foundation for what would become the leading university in the Muslim world.[16]
The mosque was expanded during the rule of the caliph al-Aziz Billah. According toal-Mufaddal, he ordered the restoration of portions of the mosque and had the ceiling raised by one cubit. The next Fatimid caliph,al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (r. 996–1021), would continue to renovate the mosque, providing a new wooden door in 1010. However, al-Hakim's reign saw the completion of theal-Hakim Mosque, and al-Azhar lost its status as Cairo's primary congregational mosque. In May 1009 the al-Hakim Mosque became the sole location for the caliph's sermons; prior to this, al-Hakim would rotate where the Friday sermon was held. Following al-Hakim's reign, al-Azhar was restored by Caliphal-Mustansir Billah (r. 1036–1094). Additions and renovations were carried during the reign of the remaining Fatimid caliphs.[17] Caliphal-Hafiz undertook a major refurbishment in 1138, which established thekeel-shaped arches and carvedstucco decoration seen in the courtyard today, as well as the dome at the central entrance of the prayer hall.[18]
Initially lacking a library, al-Azhar was endowed by the Fatimid caliph in 1005 with thousands of manuscripts that formed the basis of its collection.[19] Fatimid efforts to establish Isma'ili practice among the population were, however largely unsuccessful.[10] Much of its manuscript collection was dispersed in the chaos that ensued with thefall of the Fatimid Caliphate,[19] and Al-Azhar became a Sunni institution shortly thereafter.[10]
Saladin, who overthrew the Fatimids in 1171, was hostile to the Shi’ite principles of learning propounded at al-Azhar during the Fatimid Caliphate, and under hisAyyubid dynasty the mosque suffered from neglect. Congregational prayers were banned by Sadr al-Din ibn Dirbass, appointedqadi by Saladin.[20] The reason for this edict may have beenShāfi‘ī teachings that proscribe congregational prayers in a community to only one mosque, or mistrust of the former Shi'a institution by the new Sunni ruler.[19][21] By this time, the much largeral-Hakim Mosque was completed; congregational prayers in Cairo were held there.[20]
In addition to stripping al-Azhar of its status as congregational mosque, Saladin also ordered the removal from themihrab of the mosque a silver band on which the names of the Fatimid caliphs had been inscribed. This and similar silver bands removed from other mosques totaled 5,000dirhems.[17] Saladin did not completely disregard the upkeep of the mosque and according to al-Mufaddal one of the mosque's minarets was raised during Saladin's rule.[17]
The teaching center at the mosque also suffered.[20] The once well stocked library at al-Azhar was neglected, and manuscripts of Fatimid teachings that were held at al-Azhar were destroyed.[19][22] The Ayyubid dynasty promoted the teaching of Sunni theology in subsidizedmadrasas (schools) built throughout Cairo.[20] Student funding was withdrawn,[20] organized classes were no longer held at the mosque, and the professors that had prospered under the Fatimids were forced to find other means to earn their living.[22]
Al-Azhar nevertheless remained the seat of Arabicphilology and a place of learning throughout this period.[20] While official classes were discontinued, private lessons were still offered in the mosque. There are reports that a scholar, possiblyal-Baghdadi, taught a number of subjects, such as law and medicine, at al-Azhar. Saladin reportedly paid him a salary of 30 dinars, which was increased to 100 dinars by Saladin's heirs.[22] While the mosque was neglected by Saladin and his heirs, the policies of the Sunni Ayyubid dynasty would have a lasting impact on al-Azhar. Educational institutions were established by Sunni rulers as a way of combating what they regarded as the heretical teachings of Shi'a Islam. These colleges, ranging in size, focused on teaching Sunni doctrine, had an established and uniform curriculum that included courses outside of purely religious topics, such as rhetorics, math, and science.[23] No such colleges had been established in Egypt by the time of Saladin's conquest. Saladin and the later rulers of the Ayyubid dynasty would build twenty-six colleges in Egypt, among them theSalihiyya Madrasa.[24]
Al-Azhar eventually adopted Saladin's educational reforms modeled on the college system he instituted, and its fortunes improved under theMamluks, who restored student stipends and salaries for theshuyūkh (teaching staff).[19]
Congregational prayers were reestablished at al-Azhar during theMamluk Sultanate bySultan Baibars in 1266. While Shāfi‘ī teachings, which Saladin and the Ayyubids followed, stipulated that only one mosque should be used as a congregational mosque in a community, theHanafimadh'hab, to which the Mamluks adhered, placed no such restriction.[21] Al-Azhar had by now lost its association with the Fatimids and Ismāʿīli doctrines, and with Cairo's rapid expansion, the need for mosque space allowed Baibars to disregard al-Azhar's history and restore the mosque to its former prominence. Under Baibars and the Mamluk Sultanate, al-Azhar saw the return of stipends for students and teachers, as well as the onset of work to repair the mosque, which had been neglected for nearly 100 years.[25] According to al-Mufaddal, the emir 'Izz al-Din Aydamur al-Hilli built his house next to the mosque and while doing so repaired the mosque. Al-Maqrizi reports that the emir repaired the walls and roof as well as repaving and providing new floor mats. The firstkhutbah since the reign of the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim took place on 16 January 1266 with the sermon delivered on a new pulpit completed five days earlier.[26]
An earthquake in 1302 caused damage to al-Azhar and a number of other mosques throughout Mamluk territory. The responsibility for reconstruction was split among theamirs (princes) of the Sultanate and the head of the army,Sayf al-Din Salar, who was tasked with repairing the damage. These repairs were the first done since the reign of Baibars.[27] Seven years later, a dedicated school, theMadrasa al-Aqbughawiyya, was built along the northwest wall of the mosque. Portions of the wall of the mosque were removed to accommodate the new building. Construction of another school, theMadrasa al-Taybarsiyya began in 1332–1333. This building, which was completed in 1339–1340, would also impact the structure of the mosque as it was built over the site of themida'a, the fountain forablution.[26] Both of themadrasas were built as complementary buildings to al-Azhar, with separate entrances and prayer halls.[27]
Though the mosque had regained its standing in Cairo, repairs and additional work were carried out by those in positions lower than sultan. This changed under the rule ofal-Zahir Barquq, the first sultan of theBurji dynasty. Both Sultan Barquq and then Sultanal-Mu'ayyad tried, in 1397 and 1424 respectively, to replace the minaret of al-Azhar with a new one in stone, but on both occasions the construction was found to be defective and had to be pulled down.[21] The resumption of direct patronage by those in the highest positions of government continued through to the end of Mamluk rule. Improvements and additions were made by the sultansQaytbay andQansuh al-Ghuri, each of whom oversaw numerous repairs and erectedminarets that still stand today.[28] It was common practice among the Mamluk sultans to build minarets, perceived as symbols of power and the most effective way of cementing one's position in the Cairo cityscape. The sultans wished to have a noticeable association with the prestigious al-Azhar.[28] Al-Ghuri may also have rebuilt the dome in front of the originalmihrab.[29]
Although the mosque-school was the leading university in the Islamic world and had regained royal patronage, it did not overtake themadrasas as the favored place of education among Cairo's elite. Al-Azhar maintained its reputation as an independent place of learning, whereas themadrasas that had first been constructed during Saladin's rule were fully integrated into the state educational system. Al-Azhar did continue to attract students from other areas in Egypt and the Middle East, far surpassing the numbers attending themadrasas.[30] Al-Azhar's student body was organized inriwaqs (fraternities) along national lines, and the branches of Islamic law were studied. The average degree required six years of study.[19]
By the 14th century, al-Azhar had achieved a preeminent place as the center for studies in law, theology, and Arabic, becoming a cynosure for students all around the Islamic world.[19] However, only one third of theulema (Islamic scholars) of Egypt were reported to have either attended or taught at al-Azhar.[30] One account, byMuhammad ibn Iyas, reports that the Salihiyya Madrasa, and not al-Azhar, was viewed as the "citadel of theulema" at the end of the Mamluk Sultanate.[31]
With theOttoman annexation of 1517, despite the mayhem their fight to control the city engendered, the Turks showed great deference to the mosque and its college, though direct royal patronage ceased.[19][30] SultanSelim I, the first Ottoman ruler of Egypt, attended al-Azhar for the congregationalFriday prayer during his last week in Egypt, but did not donate anything to the upkeep of the mosque. Later Ottomanamirs likewise regularly attended Friday prayers at al-Azhar, but rarely provided subsidies for the maintenance of the mosque, though they did on occasion provide stipends for students and teachers. In contrast to the expansions and additions undertaken during the Mamluk Sultanate, only two Ottomanwalīs (governors) restored al-Azhar in the early Ottoman period.[30]
Despite their defeat by Selim I and the Ottomans in 1517, the Mamluks remained influential in Egyptian society, becomingbeys ("chieftains"), nominally under the control of the Ottoman governors, instead ofamirs at the head of an empire.[30] The first governor of Egypt under Selim I wasKhai'r Bey, a Mamlukamir who had defected to the Ottomans during theBattle of Marj Dabiq.[32] Though the Mamluks launched multiple revolts to reinstate their Sultanate, including two in 1523,[33] the Ottomans refrained from completely destroying the Mamluk hold over the power structure of Egypt. The Mamluks did suffer losses—both economic and military—in the immediate aftermath of the Ottoman victory, and this was reflected in the lack of financial assistance provided to al-Azhar in the first hundred years of Ottoman rule. By the 18th century the Mamluk elite had regained much of its influence and began to sponsor numerous renovations throughout Cairo and at al-Azhar specifically.[30]
Al-Qazdughli, a powerful Mamlukbey, sponsored several additions and renovations in the early 18th century. Under his direction, ariwaq for blind students was added in 1735. He also sponsored the rebuilding of the Turkish and Syrianriwaqs, both of which had originally been built by Qaytbay.[34]
This marked the beginning of the largest set of renovations to be undertaken since the expansions conducted under the Mamluk Sultanate. Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda was appointedkatkhuda (head of theJanissaries) in 1749 and embarked on several projects throughout Cairo and at al-Azhar. Under his direction, three new gates were built: theBab al-Muzayinīn (the Gate of the Barbers), so named because students would have their heads shaved outside of the gate, which eventually became the main entrance to the mosque; theBab al-Sa'ayida (the Gate of the Sa'idis), named for theSa'idi people ofUpper Egypt; and, several years later, theBab al-Shurba (the Soup Gate), from which food, often rice soup, would be served to the students. A prayer hall was added to the south of the original one, doubling the size of the available prayer space. Katkhuda also refurbished or rebuilt several of theriwaqs that surrounded the mosque. Katkhuda was buried in a mausoleum he himself had built in Al-Azhar; in 1776, he became the first person (and the last) to be interred within the mosque since Nafissa al-Bakriyya, a female mystic who had died around 1588.[35][36]
During the Ottoman period, al-Azhar regained its status as a favored institution of learning in Egypt, overtaking themadrasas that had been originally instituted by Saladin and greatly expanded by the Mamluks. By the end of the 18th century, al-Azhar had become inextricably linked to theulema of Egypt.[31] Theulema also were able to influence the government in an official capacity, with several sheikhs appointed to advisory councils that reported to thepasha (honorary governor), who in turn was appointed for only one year.[37] This period also saw the introduction of more secular courses taught at al-Azhar, with science and logic joining philosophy in the curriculum.[38] During this period, al-Azhar saw its first non-Maliki rector; Abdullah al-Shubrawi, a follower of theShafiimadhab, was appointed rector.[39] No follower of the Malikimadhab would serve as rector until 1899 when Salim al-Bishri was appointed to the post.
Al-Azhar also served as a focal point for protests against the Ottoman occupation of Egypt, both from within theulema and from among the general public. Student protests at al-Azhar were common, and shops in the vicinity of the mosque would often close out of solidarity with the students.[40] Theulema was also on occasion able to defy the government. In one instance, in 1730–31, Ottomanaghas harassed the residents living near al-Azhar while pursuing three fugitives. The gates at al-Azhar were closed in protest and the Ottoman governor, fearing a larger uprising, ordered theaghas to refrain from going near al-Azhar. Another disturbance occurred in 1791 in which thewāli harassed the people near theal-Hussein Mosque, who then went to al-Azhar to demonstrate. Thewāli was subsequently dismissed from his post.[41]
Napoleoninvaded Egypt in July 1798, arriving inAlexandria on July 2 and moving on to Cairo on July 22.[42] In a bid to placate both the Egyptian population and the Ottoman Empire, Napoleon gave a speech in Alexandria in which he proclaimed his respect for Islam and the Sultan:
People of Egypt, you will be told that I have come to destroy your religion: do not believe it! Answer that I have come to restore your rights and punish the usurpers, and that, more than the Mamluks, I respect God, his Prophet and the Koran ... Is it not we who have been through the centuries the friends of the Sultan?[43]
On July 25Napoleon set up adiwan made up of nine al-Azhar sheikhs tasked with governing Cairo, the first body of Egyptians to hold official powers since the beginning of the Ottoman occupation.[42][44] This practice of forming councils among theulema of a city, first instituted in Alexandria, was put in place throughout French-occupied Egypt.[45] Napoleon also unsuccessfully sought afatwa from the al-Azhar imams that would deem it permissible under Islamic law to declare allegiance to Napoleon.[43]
Napoleon's efforts to win over both the Egyptians and the Ottomans proved unsuccessful; the Ottoman Empire declared war on 9 September 1798, and a revolt against French troops was launched from al-Azhar on 21 October 1798.[46][47] Egyptians armed with stones, spears, and knives rioted and looted.[48] The following morning thediwan met with Napoleon in an attempt to bring about a peaceful conclusion to the hostilities. Napoleon, initially incensed, agreed to attempt a peaceful resolution and asked the sheikhs of thediwan to organize talks with the rebels. The rebels, believing the move indicated weakness among the French, refused.[49] Napoleon then ordered that the city be fired upon from theCairo Citadel, aiming directly at al-Azhar. During the revolt two to three hundred French soldiers were killed, with 6,000 Egyptian casualties.[50] Six of theulema of al-Azhar were killed following summary judgments laid against them, with several more condemned.[51] Any Egyptian caught by French troops was imprisoned or, if caught bearing weapons, beheaded.[52] The French troops intentionally desecrated the mosque, walking in with their shoes on and guns displayed. The troops tied their horses to themihrab and ransacked the student quarters and libraries, throwing copies of the Quran on the floor. The leaders of the revolt then attempted to negotiate a settlement with Napoleon, but were rebuffed.[50]
Napoleon, who had been well respected in Egypt and had earned himself the nicknameSultan el-Kebir (the Great Sultan) among the people of Cairo, lost their admiration and was no longer so addressed.[53] In March 1800, French GeneralJean Baptiste Kléber was assassinated bySuleiman al-Halabi, a student at al-Azhar. Following the assassination, Napoleon ordered the closing of the mosque; the doors remained bolted until Ottoman and British assistance arrived in August 1801.[44]
The conservative tradition of the mosque, with its lack of attention to science, was shaken by Napoleon's invasion. A seminal innovation occurred with the introduction of printing presses to Egypt, finally enabling the curriculum to shift from oral lectures and memorization to instruction by text, though the mosque itself only acquired its own printing press in 1930.[54] Upon the withdrawal of the French,Muhammad Ali Pasha encouraged the establishment of secular learning, and history, math, and modern science were adopted into the curriculum. By 1872, under the direction ofJamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī,European philosophy was also added to the study program.[54]
Following the French withdrawal, Ali, thewāli (governor) and self-declaredkhedive (viceroy) of Egypt, sought to consolidate his newfound control of the country. To achieve this goal he took a number of steps to limit, and eventually eliminate, the ability of the al-Azharulema to influence the government. He imposed taxes onrizqa lands (tax-free property owned by mosques) andmadrasas, from which al-Azhar drew a major portion of its income.[44] In June 1809, he ordered that the deeds to allrizqa lands be forfeited to the state in a move that provoked outrage among theulema. As a result, Umar Makram, thenaqib al-ashraf, a prestigious Islamic post, led a revolt in July 1809. The revolt failed and Makram, an influential ally of theulema, was exiled toDamietta.[55]
Ali also sought to limit the influence of the al-Azhar sheikhs by allocating positions within the government to those educated outside of al-Azhar. He sent select students to France to be educated under a Western system and created an educational system based on that model that was parallel to, and thus bypassed, the system of al-Azhar.[44]
Under the rule ofIsma'il Pasha, the grandson of Muhammad Ali, major public works projects were initiated with the aim of transforming Cairo into a European styled city.[56] These projects, at first funded by a boom in the cotton industry, eventually racked up a massive debt which was held by the British, providing an excuse for the British to occupy Egypt in 1882 after having pushed out Isma'il Pasha in 1879.[56][57]
The reign of Isma'il Pasha also saw the return of royal patronage to al-Azhar. Askhedive, Isma'il restored theBab al-Sa'ayida (first built by Katkhuda) and theMadrasa al-Aqbughawiyya.Tewfik Pasha, Isma'il's son, who becamekhedive when his father was deposed as a result of British pressure, continued to restore the mosque. Tewfik renovated the prayer hall that was added by Katkhuda, aligned the southeastern facade of the hall with the street behind it, and remodeled the facade of theMadrasa al-Aqbughawiya along with several other areas of the mosque.Abbas Hilmi II succeeded his father Tewfik askhedive of Egypt and Sudan in 1892, and continued the renovations started by his grandfather Isma'il. He restructured the main facade of the mosque and built a new three-storyriwaq inneo-Mamluk style along the mosque's southwestern corner (known as theRiwaq al-'Abbasi) which was completed in 1901. Under his rule, theCommittee for the Conservation of Monuments of Arab Art (also known as the "Comité"), also restored the original Fatimidsahn. These renovations were both needed and helped modernize al-Azhar and harmonize it with what was becoming a metropolis.[58]
The major set of reforms that began under the rule of Isma'il Pasha continued under the British occupation.[59] Muhammad Mahdi al-'Abbasi,sheikh al-Azhar, had instituted a set of reforms in 1872 intended to provide structure to the hiring practices of the university as well as to standardize the examinations taken by students. Further efforts to modernize the educational system were made under Hilmi's rule during the British occupation.[60] The mosque's manuscripts were gathered into a centralized library, sanitation for students improved, and a regular system of exams instituted. From 1885, other colleges in Egypt were placed directly under the administration of the al-Azhar Mosque.[59]
DuringSa'ad Zaghloul's term as minister of education, before he went on to lead theEgyptian Revolution of 1919, further efforts were made to modify the educational policy of al-Azhar.[60] While a bastion of conservatism in many regards, the mosque was opposed to Islamic fundamentalism, especially as espoused by theMuslim Brotherhood, founded in 1928.[59] The school attracted students from throughout the world, including students fromSoutheast Asia and particularlyIndonesia, providing a counterbalance to the influence of theWahhabis inSaudi Arabia.[61]
Under the reign of KingFuad I, two laws were passed that reorganized the educational structure at al-Azhar. The first of these, in 1930, split the school into three departments: Arabic language,sharia, and theology, with each department located in buildings outside of the mosque throughout Cairo.[60] Additionally, formal examinations were required to earn a degree in one of these three fields of study.[62] Six years later, a second law was passed that moved the main office for the school to a newly constructed building across the street from the mosque. Additional structures were later added to supplement the three departmental buildings.[60]
The ideas advocated by several influential reformers in the early 1900s, such asMuhammad Abduh and Muhammad al-Ahmadi al-Zawahiri, began to take hold at al-Azhar in 1928, with the appointment ofMustafa al-Maraghi as rector. A follower of Abduh, the majority of theulema opposed his appointment.[62][63] Al-Maraghi and his successors began a series of modernizing reforms of the mosque and its school, expanding programs outside of the traditional subjects. Fuad disliked al-Maraghi, and had him replaced after one year by al-Zawahiri, but al-Maraghi would return to the post of rector in 1935, serving until his death in 1945. Under his leadership, al-Azhar's curriculum was expanded to include non-Arabic languages and modern sciences.[64] Al-Zawahiri, who had also been opposed by theulema of the early 1900s, continued the efforts to modernize and reform al-Azhar. Following al-Maraghi's second term as rector, another student of Abduh was appointed rector.[63]
Following theEgyptian Revolution of 1952, led by theFree Officers Movement ofMohamed Naguib andGamal Abdel Nasser, in which theEgyptian monarchy was overthrown, the university began to be separated from the mosque.[54][65] A number of properties that surrounded the mosque were acquired and demolished to provide space for a modern campus by 1955. The mosque itself would no longer serve as a school, and the college was officially designated a university in 1961.[60][65] The 1961 law separated the dual roles of the educational institution and the religious institution which made judgments heeded throughout the Muslim world.[66] The law also created secular departments within al-Azhar, such as colleges of medicine, engineering, and economics, furthering the efforts at modernization first seen following the French occupation.[67][68] The reforms of the curriculum have led to a massive growth in the number of Egyptian students attending al-Azhar run schools, specifically youths attending primary and secondary schools within the al-Azhar system. The number of students reported to attend al-Azhar primary and secondary schools increased from under 90,000 in 1970 to 300,000 in the early 1980s, up to nearly one million in the early 1990s, and exceeding 1.3 million students in 2001.[69][70]
During his tenure as Prime Minister, and later President, Nasser continued the efforts to limit the power of theulema of al-Azhar and to use its influence to his advantage. In 1952, thewaqfs were nationalized and placed under the authority of the newly createdMinistry of Religious Endowments, cutting off the ability of the mosque to control its financial affairs.[71][72] He abolished thesharia courts, merging religious courts with the state judicial system in 1955, severely limiting the independence of theulema.[72] The 1961 reform law, which invalidated an earlier law passed in 1936 that had guaranteed the independence of al-Azhar, gave the President of Egypt the authority to appoint thesheikh al-Azhar, a position first created during Ottoman rule and chosen from and by theulema since its inception.[73][74] Al-Azhar, which remained a symbol of the Islamic character of both the nation and the state, continued to influence the population while being unable to exert its will over the state. Al-Azhar became increasingly co-opted into the state bureaucracy after the revolution—independence of its curriculum and its function as a mosque ceased.[75] The authority of theulema were further weakened by the creation of government agencies responsible for providing interpretations of religious laws.[76] While these reforms dramatically curtailed the independence of theulema, they also had the effect of reestablishing their influence by integrating them further into the state apparatus.[77] The 1961 reform law also provided theulema with the resources of the state, though the purse strings were outside of their control.[78] While Nasser sought to subjugate theulema beneath the state, he did not allow more extreme proposals to limit the influence of al-Azhar. One such proposal was made byTaha Hussein in 1955. Hussein sought to dismantle the Azharite primary and secondary educational system and transform the university into a faculty of theology which would be included within the modern, secular, collegiate educational system. Theulema opposed this plan, though Nasser's choice of maintaining al-Azhar's status was due more to personal political considerations, such as the use of al-Azhar to grant legitimacy to the regime, than on the opposition of theulema.[79]
Al-Azhar, now fully integrated as an arm of the government, was then used to justify actions of the government. Although theulema had in the past issued rulings thatsocialism is irreconcilable with Islam, following the Revolution's land reforms new rulings were supplied giving Nasser a religious justification for what he termed an "Islamic" socialism.[80] Theulema would also serve as a counterweight to theMuslim Brotherhood, and to Saudi Arabia's Wahhabi influence.[81] An assassination attempt on Nasser was blamed on the Brotherhood, and the organization was outlawed. Nasser, needing support from theulema as he initiated mass arrests of Brotherhood members, relaxed some of the restrictions placed on al-Azhar. Theulema of al-Azhar in turn consistently supported him in his attempts to dismantle the Brotherhood, and continued to do so in subsequent regimes.[76][82] Despite the efforts of Nasser and al-Azhar to discredit the Brotherhood, the organization continued to function.[83] Al-Azhar also provided legitimacy forwar with Israel in 1967, declaring the conflict against Israel a "holy struggle".[84]
Following Nasser's death in 1970,Anwar Sadat became President of Egypt. Sadat wished to restore al-Azhar as a symbol of Egyptian leadership throughout the Arab world, saying that "the Arab world cannot function without Egypt and its Azhar".[85] Recognizing the growing influence of the Muslim Brotherhood, Sadat relaxed several restrictions on the Brotherhood and theulema as a whole. However, in an abrupt about-face, in September 1971 a crackdown was launched on journalists and organizations that Sadat felt were undermining or attacking his positions. As part of this effort to silence criticism of his policies, Sadat instituted sanctions against any of theulema who criticized or contradicted official state policies. Theulema of al-Azhar continued to be used as a tool of the government, sparking criticism among several groups, includingIslamist and other more moderate groups.[84]Shukri Mustafa, an influential Islamist figure, accused theulema of providing religious judgments for the sole purpose of government convenience.[85] When Sadat needed support for making peace with Israel, which the vast majority of the Egyptian population regarded as an enemy, al-Azhar provided a decree stating that the time had come to make peace.[84]
Hosni Mubarak succeeded Sadat as President of Egypt following Sadat's assassination in 1981. While al-Azhar would continue to oblige the government in granting a religious legitimacy to its dictates, the mosque and its clergy were given more autonomy under Mubarak's regime. UnderJad al-Haq, the sheikh of al-Azhar from 1982 until his death in 1994, al-Azhar asserted its independence from the state, at times criticizing policies of the state for instigating extremist Islamist sects. Al-Haq argued that if the government wished al-Azhar to effectively combat groups such asal-Gama'a al-Islamiyya then al-Azhar must be permitted greater independence from the state and for it to be allowed to make religious declarations without interference.[86] Under Mubarak, a number of powers of the state were ceded to al-Azhar. During the 1990s, modifications to existing censorship laws gave al-Azhar the ability to censor both print and electronic media. Though the law stipulates that al-Azhar may only become involved following a complaint, in practice its role has been much more pervasive; for example, television scripts were routinely sent to al-Azhar for approval prior to airing.[87]
Al-Azhar continues to hold a status above other Sunni religious authorities throughout the world, and as Sunnis form a large majority of the total Muslim population al-Azhar exerts considerable influence on the Islamic world as a whole.[88] In addition to being the default authority within Egypt, al-Azhar has been looked to outside of Egypt for religious judgments. Prior to theGulf War, Saudi Arabia'sKing Fahd asked for a fatwa authorizing the stationing of foreign troops within the kingdom, and despite Islam's two holiest sites being located within Saudi Arabia, he asked the head sheikh of al-Azhar instead of theGrand Mufti of Saudi Arabia.[89] In 2003,Nicolas Sarkozy, at the timeFrench Minister of the Interior, requested a judgment from al-Azhar allowing Muslim girls to not wear thehijab in French public schools, despite the existence of theFrench Council of Islam. The sheikh of al-Azhar provided the ruling, saying that while wearing the hijab is an "Islamic duty" the Muslim women of France are obligated to respect and follow French laws. The ruling drew much criticism within Egypt as compromising Islamic principles to convenience the French government, and in turn the Egyptian government.[90]
Al-Azhar was not unaffected by the2011 Egyptian revolution that saw the removal of Hosni Mubarak as president of Egypt. Student government elections in the months following the revolution resulted in an overwhelming victory for the once bannedMuslim Brotherhood.[91] Protests demanding that themilitary junta ruling Egypt restore the mosque's independence from the state broke out, and the mosque itself commissioned the writing of a draft law that would grant al-Azhar greater independence from the government.[91] Within al-Azhar, debate on its future and rightful role within the state has replaced what had been a mollified single-voice in support of the policies of the Mubarak regime.[92] The various views on al-Azhar's future role in Egypt come from several parties, including leadingIslamist organizations such as the Muslim Brotherhood, liberal voices that wish to see al-Azhar stand as a bulwark against ultra-conservative Islamists (known asSalafists), and those that hope to see al-Azhar become wholly independent from the state and in complete control of its finances, leadership, and further that it be placed in charge of the religious ministries of the state.[93]
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In 2018 a major restoration of the mosque was completed, financed by bothKing Abdullah andKing Salman of Saudi Arabia. Among the goals of the restoration was the reinforcement of the building's foundations, the restoration of its architectural elements, and upgrades to its infrastructure.[94][95] TheBab al-Muzayinīn (Gate of the Barbers), formerly one of the main public entrances to the mosque, has been made less accessible as a result of the restoration project.[96]
In 2020, representatives from the mosque spoke out against sexual violence in Egypt, prompted by the social media campaign instigated by studentNadeen Ashraf.[97]
The original structure of the mosque was 280 feet (85 m) in length and 227 feet (69 m) wide,[7] and was made up of threearcades situated around a courtyard.[16] To the southeast of the courtyard was the original prayer hall, built as ahypostyle hall, five aisles deep, though with itsqibla wall slightly off the correct angle.[98][99] The marble columns supporting the four arcades that made up the prayer hall were reused from sites extant at different times inEgyptian history, fromPharaonic times throughRoman rule toCoptic dominance.[100][101] The different heights of the columns were made level by using bases of varying thickness.[100] The stucco exterior shows influences fromAbbasid,Coptic andByzantine architecture.[102]
Ultimately a total of three domes were built, a common trait among early north African mosques, although none of them have survived Al-Azhar's many renovations.[102][103] The historianal-Maqrizi recorded that in the original dome al-Siqilli inscribed the following:
In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate; according to the command for its building from the servant of Allah, His governor abu Tamim Ma'ad, the Imam al-Mu‘izz li-Dīn Allāh, Amir al-Mu'minin, for whom and his illustrious forefathers and his sons may there be the blessings of Allah: By the hand of his servant Jawhar, the Secretary, the Ṣiqillī in the year 360.
Gawhar included the honorificAmir al-Mu'minin, Commander of the Faithful, as the Caliphs title and also included his nickname "the Secretary" which he had earned serving as a secretary prior to becoming a general.[104]
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K. A. C. Creswell wrote that the original structure certainly had one dome, and likely a second for symmetry.[6]The originalmihrab, uncovered in 1933, has a semi-dome above it with a marble column on either side.[105] Intricate stucco decorations were a prominent feature of the mosque, with themihrab and the walls ornately decorated.[12] Themihrab had two sets of verses from theQuran inscribed in theconch, which is still intact. The first set of verses are the three that openal-Mu’minoon:
قَدْ أَفْلَحَ الْمُؤْمِنُونَ – الَّذِينَ هُمْ فِي صَلَاتِهِمْ خَاشِعُونَ – وَالَّذِينَ هُمْ عَنِ اللَّغْوِ مُعْرِضُونَSuccessful indeed are the believers – who are humble in their prayers – and who avoid vain talk
The next inscription is made up of verses 162 and 163 ofal-An'am:
قُلْ إِنَّ صَلَاتِي وَنُسُكِي وَمَحْيَايَ وَمَمَاتِي لِلَّهِ رَبِّ الْعَالَمِينَ – لَا شَرِيكَ لَهُ وَبِذَلِكَ أُمِرْتُ وَأَنَا أَوَّلُ الْمُسْلِمِينَSay: Surely my prayer and my sacrifice and my life and my death are (all) for Allah, the Lord of the worlds – No associate has He; and this am I commanded, and I am the first of those who submit.
These inscriptions are the only surviving piece of decoration that has been definitively traced to the Fatimids.[105]
The marble paved central courtyard was added between 1009 and 1010.[106] The arcades that surround the courtyard have keel shaped arches with stucco inscriptions. The arches were built during the reign ofal-Hafiz li-Din Allah.[107] The stucco ornaments also date to his rule and were redone in 1891.[107] Two types of ornaments are used. The first appears above the center of the arch and consists of a sunken roundel and twenty-four lobes. A circular band of vegetal motifs was added in 1893. The second ornament used, which alternates with the first appearing in between each arch, consists of shallow niches below a fluted hood. The hood rests onengaged columns which are surrounded by band of Qu'ranic writing inKufic script. The Qu'ranic script was added after the rule of al-Hafiz but during the Fatimid period.[107] The walls are topped by a star shaped band with tiered triangularcrenellations.[107] The southeastern arcade of the courtyard contains the main entrance to the prayer hall. A Persian framing gate, in which the central arch of the arcade is further in with a higher rectangular pattern above it, opens into the prayer hall.[107]
A new wooden door was installed during the reign of al-Hakim in 1009.[108] In 1125, al-Amir installed a new woodenmihrab. An additional dome was constructed during the reign of al-Hafiz li-Din Allah. He additionally ordered the creation of a fourth arcade around the courtyard and had a porch built on the western end of thesahn.[102][109]
The Fatimid dynasty was succeeded by the rule of Saladin and hisAyyubid dynasty. Initially appointedvizier by the last Fatimid CaliphAl-'Āḍid (who incorrectly thought he could be easily manipulated), Saladin consolidated power in Egypt, allying that country with the SunniAbbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.[110] Distrusting al-Azhar for its Shi'a history, the mosque lost prestige during his rule.[19] However, the succeeding Mamluk dynasty made restorations and additions to the mosque, overseeing a rapid expansion of its educational programs.[111] Among the restorations was a modification of themihrab, with the installation of a polychrome marble facing.[100]
TheMadrasa al-Taybarsiyya, which contains the tomb ofAmir Taybars, was built in 1309.[112][113] Originally intended to function as a complementary mosque to al-Azhar it has since been integrated with the rest of the mosque.[27] TheMaliki andShāfi‘īmadh'hab were studied in thismadrasa, though it now is used to hold manuscripts from the library. The only surviving piece from the original is the qibla wall and its polychromemihrab.[112] Al-Maqrizi reported that themadrasa was used only for studying the Shāfi‘ī while the historianIbn Duqmaq reported that one of theliwans in themadrasa was reserved for Shāfi‘ī teachings while the other was for Maliki teachings.[114]
Themadrasa was completely rebuilt by Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda, leaving only the southeastern wall and itsmihrab untouched. Themihrab was described byK. A. C. Creswell as being "one of the finest in Cairo".[114] The niche of themihrab is 1.13 meters (3.7 ft) wide and 76 centimeters (30 in) deep. On each side of the niche stands a 2.78 meters (9.1 ft) high porphyry column. Above the columns are impost blocks decorated with colored geometrical designs.[114] The semi-dome at the top of themihrab is set within an outer arch. Surrounding this arch is a molding that forms a rectangular outer frame. This is the firstmihrab in Egypt to have this type of frame.[115] Inside the frame are glass mosaics depictingpomegranate trees.[18]
A dome and minaret cover theMadrasa al-Aqbughawiyya, which contains the tomb ofAmir Aqbugha, which was built in 1339.[112] Intended by its founder, another Mamlukamir called Sayf al-Din Aqbugha 'Abd al-Wahid, to be a stand-alone mosque and school, themadrasa has since become integrated with the rest of the mosque.[116] It includes both a small tomb chamber and a larger hall, both withmihrabs. The entrance, qibla wall, and themihrabs with glass mosaics are all original, while the pointed dome was rebuilt in the Ottoman period.[112][117] Parts of the facade were remodeled by Khedive Tewfik in 1888.[107] The top of the minaret was remodelled by Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda so as to have a pointed top like the other Ottoman-style minarets he built around the entrances of the mosque, but at some point after 1932 the top was once again refashioned to end with a Mamluk-style finial which we see today.[118]
Built in 1440,[113] theMadrasa Gawhariyya contains the tomb of Gawhar al-Qanaqba'i, aSudaneseeunuch who became treasurer to the sultan.[112] The floor of themadrasa is marble, the walls lined with cupboards, decoratively inlaid with ebony, ivory, andnacre. The tomb chamber is covered by small stone dome whose exterior is carved with an arabesque pattern, making it one for the earliest domes in Cairo with this type of decoration (later refined in the dome ofQaytay's mausoleum in theNorthern Cemetery).[119] The structure was restored between 1980 and 1982.[119]
Built in 1483[120] or in 1495,[107][121] it has a square base, a transitional segment leading into an octagonal shaft, then a 10-sided polygon shaft, followed by a cylindrical shaft that consists of 8 brick pillars, each two adjoined by bricks in between. The Minaret of Qaytbay also has three balconies, supported bymuqarnas,[120] a form of stalactite vaulting which provide a smooth transition from a flat surface to a curved one[122] (first recorded to have been used in Egypt in 1085),[123] that adorn the minaret. The first shaft is octagonal is decorated with keel-arched panels on each side, with a cluster of three columns separating each panel.[120] Above this shaft is the second octagonal shaft which is separated from the first by a balcony and decorated with plaiting.[120] A second balcony separates this shaft with the final cylindrical shaft, decorated with four arches. Above this is the third balcony, crowned by thefinial top of the minaret.[120]
The minaret is believed to have been built in the area of an earlier, Fatimid-era brick minaret that had itself been rebuilt several times. Contemporary accounts suggest that the Fatimid minaret had defects in its construction and needed to be rebuilt several times,[124] including once under the direction of Sadr al-Din al-Adhra'i al-Dimashqi al-Hanafi, theqadi al-qudat (Chief Justice of the Highest Court) during the rule of Sultan Baibars.[125] Recorded to have been rebuilt again under Barquq in 1397, the minaret began to lean at a dangerous angle and was rebuilt in 1414 by Taj al-Din al-Shawbaki, thewalī andmuhtasib of Cairo, and again in 1432. The Qaytbay minaret was built in its place as part of a reconstruction of the entrance to the mosque.[124]
Directly across the courtyard from the entrance from theBab al-Muzayinīn is the Gate of Qaytbay.[116] It is a refined example of the lateMamuk architectural and decorative style. Built in 1495, this gate leads to the court of the prayer hall.[100]
The double finial minaret was built in 1509 by Qansuh al-Ghuri.[100] Sitting on a square base, the first shaft is octagonal, and four sides have a decorative keel arch, separated from the adjacent sides with two columns.[120] The second shaft, a 12-sided polygon separated from the first by fretted balconies supported by muqarnas, is decorated with bluefaience. A balcony separates the third level from the second shaft. The third level is made up of two rectangular shafts with horseshoe arches on each side of both shafts. Atop each of these two shafts rests a finial atop two identical onion shaped bulbs, with a balcony separating the finials from the shafts.[120]
Several additions and restorations were made during Ottoman reign in Egypt, many of which were completed under the direction of Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda who nearly doubled the size of the mosque.[126] Three gates were added by Katkhuda, theBab al-Muzayinīn (see below), which became the main entrance to the mosque, theBab al-Shurba (the Soup Gate), and theBab al-Sa'ayida (the Gate of theSa'idis).[35] To each gate he added a pointed Ottoman-style minaret, of which one was later demolished during the creation of al-Azhar Street. For theBab al-Muzayinīn, which was adjacent to theMadrasa al-Aqbughiyya, he remodelled the top of Aqbugha's minaret to make it resemble the other Ottoman minarets (though the top was later rebuilt again in a Mamluk style during the 20th century).[127] Severalriwaqs were added, including one for the blind students of al-Azhar, as well as refurbished during the Ottoman period.[36] Katkhuda also added an additional prayer hall south of the original Fatimid hall, with an additionalmihrab, doubling the total prayer area.[36][126] His overall work reintegrated the mosque's disparate elements in a relatively unified whole.[36]
TheBab al-Muzayinīn ("Gate of the Barbers", Arabic:باب المزينين) was built in 1753.[128][129] Credited to Katkhuda the gate has two doors, each surrounded by recessed arches. Two molded semi-circular arches with tympanums decorated with trefoils stand above the doors. Above the arches is a frieze with panels of cypress trees, a common trait of Ottoman work.[116]
A free-standing minaret, built by Katkhuda, originally stood outside the gate. The minaret was demolished prior to the opening of al-Azhar street byTewfik Pasha during modernization efforts which took place throughout Cairo.[58]
The present main entrance to the mosque is theBab al-Muzayinīn, which opens into the white marble-paved courtyard at the opposite end of the main prayer hall.[116][130] To the northeast of theBab al-Muzayinīn, the courtyard is flanked by the façade of theMadrasa al-Aqbughawiyya; the southwestern end of the courtyard leads to theMadrasa al-Taybarsiyya.[27] Directly across the courtyard from the entrance to theBab al-Muzayinīn is theBab al-Gindi (Gate of Qaytbay), built in 1495, above which stands the minaret of Qaytbay.[116] Through this gate lies the courtyard of the prayer hall.[100]
Themihrab has recently been changed to a plain marble facing with gold patterns, replacing some of the Mamluk marble facing, but the stucco carvings in the semi-dome are likely from the Fatimid era.[100]
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