The institution developed out of the original University of Provence, founded on 9 December 1409 as astudium generale by Louis II of Anjou, Count of Provence, and recognized bypapal bull issued by the Pisan Antipope Alexander V.[29][30][31] However, there is evidence that teaching in Aix existed in some form from the beginning of the 12th century, since there were a doctor of theology in 1100, a doctor of law in 1200 and a professor of law in 1320 on the books.[32][33] The decision to establish the university was, in part, a response to the already-thrivingUniversity of Paris.[34] As a result, in order to be sure of the viability of the new institution, Louis II compelled hisProvençal students to study in Aix only.[35] Thus, theletters patent for the university were granted, and the government of the university was created. TheArchbishop of Aix-en-Provence,Thomas de Pupio, was appointed as the first chancellor of the university for the rest of his life. After his death in 1420, a new chancellor was elected by the rector, masters, and licentiates – an uncommon arrangement not repeated at any other French university. The rector was to be an "ordinary student", who had unrestricted civil and criminal jurisdiction in all cases where one party was a doctor or scholar of the university. Those displeased with the rector's decisions could appeal to adoctor legens. Elevenconsiliarii provided assistance to the rector, being elected yearly by their predecessors. These individuals represented all faculties, but were elected from among the students. The constitution was of a student-university, and the instructors did not have great authority except in granting degrees.[36] A resident doctor or student who married was required to paycharivari to the university, the amount varying with the degree or status of the man, and being increased if the bride was a widow. Refusal to submit to this statutable extortion was punished by the assemblage of students at the summons of the rector with frying-pans, bassoons, and horns at the house of the newly married couple. Continued recusancy was followed by the piling up of dirt in front of their door upon everyFeast-day. These injunctions were justified on the ground that the money extorted was devoted to divine service.[37]
In 1486, Provence came under the dominion of the French rule, marking a significant shift in its political landscape.[38][39] The university's continued existence was approved byLouis XII of France, and Aix-en-Provence remained a key provincial hub. It was, for instance, the seat of theParlement of Aix-en-Provence from 1501 to 1789,[40][41] no doubt aided by the presence of the law school.[36]
In 1603,Henry IV of France established theCollège Royal de Bourbon in Aix-en-Provence for the study ofbelles-lettres and philosophy,[42][43] supplementing the traditional faculties of the university, but not formally a part of it. Thiscollege de plain exercice became a significant seat of learning, under the control of theJesuits. Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, the college frequently served as a preparatory, but unaffiliated, school for the university. Only the university was entitled to award degrees in the theology, law, and medicine; but candidates for degrees had first to pass an examination in philosophy, which was only provided by the college. Universities basically accepted candidates who had studied in colleges formally affiliated with them, which in reality required both college and university to be situated in the same city. In 1762 the Jesuits were forced to leave France,[44] and in 1763 the college was officially affiliated with the university as a faculty of arts.[36][45] The addition of theCollège Royal de Bourbon essentially widened the scope of courses provided at the University of Provence. Formal instruction in French was initially provided at the college, with texts and a structured course of study. Physics later became a part of the curriculum at the college as a part of the philosophy course in the 18th century. In 1741, equipment for conducting experiments was acquired, and the first experimental physics course was offered at Aix-en-Provence.Classical mechanics, however, was only taught after 1755, when the physicist Aimé-Henri Paulian offered his first class andIsaac Newton'sPhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica and commentaries were obtained for the library.[36]
Paul Cézanne andÉmile Zola's friendship began in 1852 when they met at theCollège Royal de Bourbon, which used to be part of the university. Subsequently, Cézanne enrolled in the university's law school.
It is also of significance that much later, in 1852,Paul Cézanne entered theCollège Royal de Bourbon where he met and befriendedÉmile Zola. This friendship was decisive for both men so they had successful careers – Cézanne as a painter and Zola as a writer.[46][47] Among their closest friends at the college wasBaptistin Baille, who went on to become a notable scientist and industrialist; together they were known asles trois inséparables (the three inseparables).[48][49]
TheFrench Revolution, with its focus on the individual and an end to inherited privilege, saw the suppression of the universities. To the revolutionaries, universities embodied bastions of corporatism and established interests. Moreover, lands owned by the universities and utilized for their support, represented a source of wealth to be tapped by the revolutionary government, just as property possessed by theFrench Catholic Church had been confiscated. In 1792, the University of Provence, along with twenty-one other universities, was dissolved.[50] Specialized ecoles, with rigorous entrance examinations and open to anyone with talent, were eventually created in order to offer professional training in specialized areas. Nonetheless, the government found it necessary to allow the faculties of law and medicine to continue in Aix-en-Provence and Marseille in the early 19th century.[36][51]
The founding of theImperial University of France in 1806 marked a pivotal moment in the educational landscape at the dawn of the 19th century; it was one of the cornerstones ofNapoleon's institutional reconstruction. Dedicated entirely to cultivating the managerial workforce that the country urgently needed, the Imperial University particularly focused on the fields of law and medicine.[52] Consequently, in 1804, twelve law schools were reinstated by Napoleon, including that of Aix, which became part of the Imperial University in 1806.[53][54] In 1818,École de Médecine was created in Marseille in order to train doctors in colonial medicine for France's expanding colonial empire. Subsequently, additional faculties were opened in Aix-en-Provence and Marseille to serve the changing needs of French society. For instance,Hippolyte Fortoul, who later served asMinister of the Navy and Colonies of France and then asMinister of Education andPublic Worship of France, was the first dean and professor of a new faculty inFrench literature established in Aix-en-Provence in 1846.[55][56] Later, the departmental council of theBouches-du-Rhône founded a chair in the faculty of letters at Aix-en-Provence in the language and literature ofsouthern Europe; their aim was to assist the commercial exploitation of the region by French business. In 1854, a new science faculty was created in Marseille to support the growing industrialization of the region.[36]
The most significant development for the university in the 19th century, nevertheless, was the recreation of French universities in 1896.[57] The various faculties in Aix-en-Provence and Marseille were grouped into the new University of Aix-Marseille.[58]
Through twoworld wars and aneconomic depression, the University of Aix-Marseille continued to develop. Increasing numbers of women and foreign students joined the student body, and an overwhelming majority of students majored in the science, medicine, and law. Individual faculties were almost autonomous from university administration and the Ministry of Education frequently intervened directly among the faculties.[36]
Following riots among university students inMay 1968,[59] a reform of French education occurred. The Orientation Act(Loi d'Orientation de l'Enseignement Superieur) of 1968 divided the old faculties into smaller subject departments, decreased the power of the Ministry of Education, and created smaller universities, with strengthened administrations.[60] Subsequently, the University of Aix-Marseille was divided into two institutions. Each university had different areas of concentration of study and the faculties were divided as follows:
In 1973, conservative faculty members led byCharles Debbasch, demanded and obtained the creation of theUniversity of Aix-Marseille III, grouping law, political science,applied economics,earth science,ecology and technological studies.
Nearly 40 years later, in June 2007, the three universities of Aix-Marseille expressed their intention to reunite in order to form one university. The reunification was gradually prepared, respecting a schedule which allowed for long discussions at each stage, after which it was approved by vote of the Board of Directors of each university. Thus, Aix-Marseille University was re-established by decree No. 2011–1010 of 24 August 2011 and officially opened its doors on 1 January 2012.[62]
AMU is governed by the President, the Vice Presidents, the General Director of Services and Deputy Directors General of Services and the Accounting Officer. They meet on a weekly basis to discuss the main affairs of the university and to devise the strategic orientations which will be examined by the university councils. A second meeting with all the deans and directors takes place immediately afterwards to discuss more specific issues regarding internal activities of the various faculties and schools.[64] The Administrative Council comprises 30 members: academics, teaching staff, administrative and technical personnel, students and external members. Its role is to determine the university general policy.[65] The Academic Council[66] consists of two bodies: The Research Committee, composed of 40 members, drafts policy proposals for research, scientific and technical documentation, and the allocation of research funding.[67] The Education and Student Life Committee, composed of 40 members, drafts policy proposals on the curriculum, on requests for authorization and projects for new programs, and on the assessment of programs and teaching.[68]
If the President of the university is the most important actor in defining the mission and the strategies of the university, he also has the necessary power to impulse or to sustain the projects that relate to these strategies. Before implementing these projects, they have to be accepted by the university council and if necessary they have to be included in the planning processes. There are two main planning processes in the definition of projects in the university that have to be followed in order to be financed or even authorised and accredited by the public (national and local) authorities. The first process takes place every six years and involves the central government, the region as well as the university. It is devoted to major investment projects, for instance building a new school, a new campus, a new library, etc. It is a catalogue of projects and for each of them it defines the financial burden accepted by each partner in the contract. The second process covers four years and has to be approved by theFrench Ministry of Education. In this process, the university sets its objectives at the pedagogical and research levels (new degrees, research projects). This planning process is very important because the university is free to define its own strategy, to be approved by the decision makers. Each process generates an important brainstorming period at all levels of the university in order to identify and build new ideas, new needs, and opportunities, to prioritise them, after an analysis of strengths and weaknesses. Other choices can be made after each process is closed, but they are more difficult to implement because other sources of funding and other ways of authorisation must be found.[69]
Aix-Marseille University enrolls about 80,000 students, including more than 10,000 international students from 128 different countries. The university provides general and vocational courses, including 600 degree programs across various fields such as the Arts, Social Sciences, Health, Sport, Economics, Law, Political Sciences, Applied Economics, Management, and Exact Sciences like Mathematics, Data-processing, Physical Sciences, Astrophysical Sciences, Chemistry, and Biology.[70] With 132 recognized research units and 21 faculties, it particularly concentrates on social and natural sciences.[71] The university engages in the establishment of a European education and research area through over 500 international agreements and promotes mobility development. A policy targeted at Asian countries has resulted in an increase in enrolments of excellent international students.[72] Programs in French and/or English have been arranged to enhance the welcome and integration of international students, particularly through the University Service of French as a Foreign Language (SUFLE). Its predecessor, the Institute of French Studies for Foreign Students(Institut d'Etudes Françaises Pour Etudiants Etrangers (IEFEE)) was founded in 1953 and was considered one of the premier French-language teaching centers in the country.[73][74] About a thousand students from 65 countries attend the SUFLE throughout the academic year. It also serves as an important center for teachers of French for international learners, aimed at providing education and honing French linguistic capabilities as a tool for scientific and cultural communication. According toHarvard University's website, the university is "one of the most distinguished in France, second only to theUniversity of Paris in the areas ofFrench literature,history, andlinguistics".[75][76][77]
The university's library system comprises 59 libraries, with 662,000 volumes, 20,000 online periodical titles, and thousands of digital resources, making it one of the largest and most diverse academic library systems in France. The overall area occupied by the libraries is equal to 37,056 m2, including 19,703 m2 public access space. The libraries offer 49.2 kilometers of open-stacks shelving and 4,219 seats for student study. In addition, there are 487 computer workstations, which are available to the public for research purposes.[78]
The university's Institute of Political Studies(Institut d'études politiques d'Aix-en-Provence), also known asSciences Po Aix, was established in 1956.[79]Sciences Po Aix is a separate and fully independent legal entity within the university.[80] It is one of a network of 10 world-famous IEPs(Instituts d'études politiques) in France, including those inBordeaux,Grenoble,Lille,Lyon,Paris,Rennes,Saint-Germain-en-Laye,Strasbourg andToulouse.[81][82]Sciences Po Aix is agrande école in political science and its primary aim is to train senior executives for the public, semi-public, and private sectors.[83][84] Although the institute offers a multitude of disciplines, its main focus is on politics, including related subjects such as history, law, economics, languages, international relations, and media studies. Its admissions process is among the toughest and most selective in the country.Sciences Po Aix has numerous exchange programs through partnerships with about 120 different universities in the world: the school therefore welcomes 200 foreign students a year. On top of these academic exchanges, students have the opportunity to do internships abroad in large international firms.[85]
The establishment of thelaw school at AMU can be traced back to the university's foundation in 1409.[94] The school had far-reaching influence, since written law, which in France originated in Aix-en-Provence, spread from there, eventually replacing thecommon law practiced throughout the rest ofnorthern Gaul.[95] The law school has a long tradition of self-management, with a strongly institutionalized culture and practices enrooted in the social and economic realities of the region.[96] Today, it is one of the largest law schools in France, and is considered to be one of the nation's leading centers for legal research and teaching.[97] The school is unique amongFrench law schools for the breadth of courses offered and the extent of research undertaken in a wide range of fields.[98] For 2024, the law school is ranked 4th in France for its undergraduate studies by bothTHE andQS rankings,[99][100] 5th byLe Figaro,[101] and 8th byEduniversal.[102] According to theUniversity of Connecticut's website, "other than theSorbonne, Aix has attracted the most prestigious law faculty in France".[103] The teaching faculty comprises 155 professors and 172 adjunct lecturers, the latter drawn from private practice, the civil service, the judiciary and other organizations. Much of the legal research at the university is done under the auspices of its many research institutes – there is one in almost every field of law. Research activity is buttressed by a network of libraries, which holds an impressive collection of monographs and periodicals, including an important collection of 16th-century manuscripts. Moreover, the libraries have several specialized rooms dedicated to specific fields of law, in particular inInternational andEuropean Law andLegal Theory.[98]
The Aix-Marseille Graduate School of Management, commonly known asIAE Aix-en-Provence, was the first Graduate School of Management in the French public university system.[117][118] According toThe Independent, IAE Aix is "a prestigious, double-accredited institution, with an international approach to business combining both classic and innovative teaching methods".[119] It is the only French public university entity to receive dual international accreditation: the European standard of excellenceEQUIS in 1999, and theAMBA accreditation in 2004 for itsMBA Change & Innovation, in 2005 for its master's programs and in 2007 for its Executive Part-time MBA.[120] The school is composed of 40 permanent faculty members, and invites more than 30 international professors and 150 business speakers each year to conduct lectures and courses within the various programs.[121] IAE Aix offers graduate level programs ingeneral management, international management,internal audit of organisations,service management, internal and externalcommunications management, management andinformation technologies,international financial management and applied marketing. In 2011, theM.Sc. in General Management was ranked 2nd in France along with the M.Sc. in Services Management and Marketing being ranked 3rd and the M.Sc. in Audit and Corporate Governance also being ranked 3rd in the country bySMBG.[122]
In 1990, IAE Aix andESSEC Business School(École Supérieure des Sciences Economiques et Commerciales) signed an agreement to unite and offer a joint Doctorate Program, allowing ESSEC professors to teach in the Research Oriented Master program in Aix-en-Provence. Furthermore, after Research Oriented Master graduation, students can attend the ESSEC Doctorate seminars and have an ESSEC Research Advisor(Directeur de Recherche). In the same way, ESSEC students can enroll in the IAE Aix's Research Oriented Master and Doctorate programs. In both cases, the members of the thesis juries come from both IAE Aix and ESSEC. The Doctorate title is awarded by Aix-Marseille University.[123][124][125]
Aix-Marseille School of Economics (AMSE) is a gathering of three big laboratories in economics, part of AMU: GREQAM(Groupement de Recherche en Economie Quantitative d'Aix Marseille), SESSTIM(Sciences Économiques & Sociales de la Santé & Traitement de l'Information Médicale), and IDEP(Institut D’Economie Publique).[126] GREQAM is a research center which specializes in all areas of economics, with strong concentrations in macroeconomics, econometrics, game theory, economic philosophy and public economics. It counts two Fellows of theEconometric Society among its members, and is consistently ranked as one of the top 5 research centers in economics in France.[127] SESSTIM consists of three teams in social and economic sciences, as well as social epidemiology, focusing on applications in the following fields: cancer, infectious and transmissible diseases, and aging.[128] IDEP aims at federating competences in the field of Public Economics broadly defined as the part of economics that studies the causes and the consequences of public intervention in the economic sphere.[129]
AMSE has a triple aim in terms of research development about "Globalization and public action", education regarding Master and PhD degrees and valorization toward local authorities, administrations and corporations, and of information aiming at all public. The AMSE Master is a two-year Master program in Economics jointly organized with theSchool for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences (EHESS) andCentrale Méditerranée. It aims to provide high-level courses and training in the main fields of specialization of AMSE: Development Economics, Econometrics, Public Economics, Environmental Economics, Finance/Insurance, Macroeconomics, Economic Philosophy, and Health Economics.[130] The doctoral program of AMSE brings together more than seventy PhD students. Ten to fifteen new PhD students join the program each year. These PhD students cover all the research topics available at AMSE. The PhD program is a member of the European Doctoral Group in Economics (EDGE) with theUniversity of Cambridge, theUniversity of Copenhagen,University College Dublin,Bocconi University, andLudwig Maximilian University of Munich.[131][132]
TheFaculty of Medicine at AMU can trace its origins to a Faculty of Medical Arts created in 1557.[133] In 1645, it was transformed into a college of medicine and recognized by a decree issued by theCouncil of State in 1683. During the revolution, although a faculty of medicine was created inMontpellier, Marseille was left aside, probably because of its close proximity. In 1818,École de Médecine et de Pharmacie was founded atHôtel-Dieu and this later became anÉcole de Plein Exercice. This educational establishment experienced remarkable success and continued to expand, enrolling 37 students in the official program and 24 in the doctoral track in 1835. By 1893, the student body had grown to 360, with 153 pursuing a degree in medicine. As the number of students increased, the facilities became insufficient, leading to the relocation of the school to thePavillon Daviel in 1875, and subsequently to thePalais du Pharo in 1893.[134] However, it was not until 1930 that a faculty of medicine was formally organised in Marseille.[135][136] The town's geographical position meant that it was able to exert a strong influence upon the Mediterranean. The most significant example of this wasAntoine Clot, known as Clot Bey, who with the help ofMuhammad Ali of Egypt, founded a school of medicine inCairo in 1827. This enabled Egyptian students to travel to France and encouraged exchanges between western and eastern medicine. In Marseille, medical practices adapted totropical diseases developed under the influence of the military department of medicine. Physiology at the faculty dates back toCharles-Marie Livon, who was namedprofesseur suppléant (deputy professor) and thenprofesseur agrégé (associate professor) of anatomy and physiology having presented his thesis in Paris. He conducted research onhypophysis and pneumogastric physiology, which earned him theMonthyon Prize at theFrench Academy of Sciences. Following his work withLouis Pasteur, he opened an anti-rabies clinic and became Mayor of Marseille in 1895. The first dean of the faculty was Leon Imbert, who arrived in Marseille in 1904 as a formerinterne des hôpitaux andprofesseur agrégé at the Montpellier faculty. Originally a surgeon, he established one of the first centers formaxillofacial prosthetics for thegueules cassées (broken faces) of the Great War. An anti-cancer center was developed by Lucien Cornill, who was originally fromVichy and studied in Paris. During the First World War, he worked at the neurological center in the 7th Military region ofBesançon under the supervision ofGustave Roussy. After the war, he became aprofesseur agrégé ofpathological anatomy. He became dean of the faculty in 1937 and held this position until 1952. His main work related toclinical neurology and medullary pathology.[137]
The Faculty of Pharmacy started its independent activity after being separated from the faculty in 1970. Subsequently, the Faculty of Dentistry also became independent from the Faculty of Medicine. Thus, these three faculties form the Division of Health of the university.[138]
The university'sAstronomy Observatory of Marseille-Provence (OAMP) was established in 1702. It is one of the French National Observatories under the auspices of the National Institute of Astronomy (INSU) of theNational Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), with a large financial participation by theNational Centre for Space Studies (CNES). Basic research at the OAMP is organized around three priority themes:cosmology and research ondark matter anddark energy,galaxy formation and evolution,stellar andplanetary system formation andexploration of the Solar System. The OAMP also contributes to the area ofenvironmental sciences and especially the study of the climatic system. The OAMP is very active in technological research and development, mainly in optics and opto-mechanics, for the development of the main observational instruments that will be deployed on the ground and in space in the coming decades. For many years OAMP research teams have had close ties with the French and European space and optical industry. The OAMP takes part in university education in astrophysics, physics and mathematics, as well as in instrumentation and signal processing from the first year of university to the doctorate level. These programs lead to openings in the fields of research and high-tech industry. The OAMP organizes many astronomy outreach activities in order to share important discoveries with the public. The OAMP consists of two establishments: the Laboratory of Astrophysics of Marseille (LAM) and theHaute-Provence Observatory (OHP), along with theDépartement Gassendi, which is a common administrative and technical support unit. With over 50 researchers, 160 engineers, technical and administrative personnel, plus some 20 graduate students and post-docs, the OAMP is one of the most important research institutes in the region.[139][140]
Polytech Marseille is aGrande École d'Ingénieurs (Graduate School of Science and Engineering), part of AMU. The School offers 8 specialist courses inemerging technologies which lead to an engineering degree after 5 years of studies. Polytech Marseille is also a member of thePolytech Group which comprises 13 engineering schools of French leading universities.[141] Polytech Marseille's advanced level courses have a strong professional focus. They include compulsory work placements in a professional organisation. These programs also benefit from a top rank scientific environment, with teaching staff drawn from laboratories attached to major French research organisations that are among the leaders in their field. Students are recruited on the basis of a selective admissions process which goes via one of two nationwide competitive admissions examinations (concours): either after thebaccalauréat (national secondary school graduation examination) for admission to a five-year course or after two years of higher education for admission to a three-year course. The courses are approved by theCommission des Titres d'Ingénieur (CTI), the French authority that authorizes recognised engineering schools to deliver theDiplôme d'Ingénieur (a state-recognised title, recognised equivalent to a "Master in Engineering" by AACRAO)[142] and thus guarantees the quality of the courses. The courses are also accredited byEUR-ACE.[143]
In the 2025Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU), AMU was ranked joint 151st–200th in the world.[149] In the subject tables it was ranked joint 51st–75th in the world for Physics and Oceanography, joint 76th–100th in the world for Public Health and Mathematics, joint 101st–150th in the world for Ecology, Mechanical Engineering, Human Biological Sciences, Clinical Medicine, Medical Technology, Dentistry and Oral Sciences, and joint 151st–200th in the world for Biology and Earth Sciences.[150]
In the 2025Times Higher Education World University Rankings (THE), AMU was ranked joint 401st–500th in the world.[151] In the subject tables it was ranked joint 126th–150th in the world for Arts and Humanities, joint 201st–250th in the world for Medical and Health, and joint 251st–300th in the world for Education Studies, Law, Life Sciences, Psychology, and Physical Sciences.[152]
In the 2026QS World University Rankings (QS), AMU was ranked joint 428th in the world.[153] In the subject tables it was ranked joint 34th in the world for Archaeology, joint 51st–150th in the world for Classics and Ancient History, joint 101st–170th in the world for Anthropology, Anatomy and Physiology, joint 147th in the world for Biological Sciences, joint 151st–200th in the world for Physics and Astronomy, Earth and Marine Sciences, Geology, Geophysics, and Environmental Sciences, joint 201st–250th in the world for English Language and Literature, Chemistry, History, Mathematics, and Medicine, and joint 251st–300th in the world for Chemical Engineering, Law, Linguistics, Modern Languages, and Psychology.[154]
In the 2025/26U.S. News & World Report Best Global Universities Ranking, AMU was ranked joint 226th in the world.[155] In the subject tables it was ranked joint 51st in the world for Marine and Freshwater Biology, 53rd in the world for Oncology, joint 54th in the world for Infectious Diseases, joint 63rd in the world for Microbiology, 74th in the world for Space Science, 87th in the world for Immunology, 105th in the world for Physics, 118th in the world for Ecology, 122nd in the world for Biology and Biochemistry, 131st in the world for Pharmacology and Toxicology, 135th in the world for Cell Biology, 143rd in the world for Polymer Science and Surgery, joint 146th in the world for Neuroscience and Behaviour, and 150th in the world for Geosciences.[156]
Aix-Marseille University is affiliated with twouniversity presses:Presses Universitaires de Provence (PUP) andPresses Universitaires d'Aix-Marseille (PUAM); the former is dedicated to the publication of works in the humanities and hard sciences, whereas the latter is devoted to the publication of legal works.[161]
AMU has produced many alumni that have distinguished themselves in their respective fields. Notable AMU alumni include fourNobel Prize laureates, a two-time recipient of thePulitzer Prize, sixCésar Award winners, fourOlympic medalists and numerous members of the component academies of theInstitut de France. AMU has a large number of alumni who have been active in politics, including multiple heads of state or government, parliamentary speakers, government ministers, over a hundred members of theNational Assembly of France, at least fifty members of theSenate of France, and fourteen members of theEuropean Parliament (EP).
Chedly Ayari – Minister of Planning ofTunisia: 1969–1970/1974–1975; Minister of Youth and Sports of Tunisia: Jun–Nov 1970;Minister of Education of Tunisia: 1970–1971; Minister of Economy of Tunisia: 1972–1974
Frieda Ekotto – Francophone African novelist and literary critic, professor of Afro-American and African Studies and Comparative Literature at theUniversity of Michigan
Bernard Harcourt – the chair of the Political Science Department, professor of political science and the Julius Kreeger Professor of Law at theUniversity of Chicago[192]
Rick Gilmore – President/CEO of GIC Trade, Inc. (the GIC Group), Special external advisor to theWhite House/USAID for the private sector/global food security and managing director of the Global Food Safety Forum (GFSF) in Beijing[198]
^M. Malte-Brun,A system of universal geography, or a description of all the parts of the world, on a new plan, according to the great natural divisions of the globe, Boston, 1834, Vol. III, p. 1022
^Thomas Neville Bonner,Becoming a Physician: Medical Education in Britain, France, Germany, and the United States, 1750–1945, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000, p. 94
^Michael Glencross,Reconstructing Camelot: French Romantic Medievalism and the Arthurian Tradition, St Edmundsbury Press Ltd, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, 1995, p. 85
^Joseph N. Moody,French Education since Napoleon, Syracuse University Press, 1978, p. 59
^Fritz Ringer,Toward a Social History of Knowledge: Collected Essays, Berghahn Books, 2000, p. 84
^Paul Monroe,A Cyclopedia of Education, A-CHR, Vol. 1 of 4, Forgotten Books, 2012, p. 70
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