Airport operations are extremely complex, with a complicated system of aircraft support services, passenger services, and aircraft control services contained within the operation. Thus airports can be major employers, as well as important hubs for tourism and other kinds of transit. Because they are sites of operation for heavy machinery, a number of regulations and safety measures have been implemented in airports, in order to reduce hazards. Additionally, airports have major local environmental impacts, as both large sources ofair pollution,noise pollution and other environmental impacts, making them sites that acutely experience theenvironmental effects of aviation. Airports are also vulnerable infrastructure toextreme weather,climate change caused sea level rise and other disasters.
The wordaeroplane emerged in the 1870s, long before theWright brothers succeeded in 1903.[6] In colloquial use in certain environments, the termsairport andaerodrome are often interchanged. However, in general, the termairport may imply or confer a certain stature upon the aviation facility that otheraerodromes may not have achieved. In some jurisdictions,airport is a legalterm of art reserved exclusively for those aerodromes certified or licensed as airports by the relevantcivil aviation authority after meeting specified certification criteria or regulatory requirements.[7]
That is to say, all airports are aerodromes, but not all aerodromes are airports. In jurisdictions where there is no legal distinction betweenaerodrome andairport, which term to use in the name of an aerodrome may be a commercial decision. In US technical/legal usage,landing area is used instead ofaerodrome, andairport means "a landing area used regularly by aircraft for receiving or discharging passengers or cargo".[8]
Smaller or less-developed airfields, which represent the vast majority, often have a single runway shorter than 1,000 m (3,300 ft). Larger airports for airline flights generally have paved runways of 2,000 m (6,600 ft) or longer. Skyline Airport inInkom, Idaho, has a runway that is only 122 m (400 ft) long.[9]
As of 2009[update], theCIA stated that there were approximately 44,000 "airports or airfields recognizable from the air" around the world, including 15,095 in the US, the US having the most in the world.[10][11]
Many US airports still lease part or all of their facilities to outside firms, who operate functions such as retail management and parking. All US commercial airport runways are certified by the FAA[12] under theCode of Federal Regulations Title 14 Part 139, "Certification of Commercial Service Airports".[13]
TheAirport & Airway Trust Fund (AATF) was created by theAirport and Airway Development in 1970 which finances aviation programs in the United States.[14]Airport Improvement Program (AIP), Facilities and Equipment (F&E), and Research, Engineering, and Development (RE&D) are the three major accounts ofFederal Aviation Administration which are financed by the AATF, as well as pays for the FAA's Operation and Maintenance (O&M) account.[15] The funding of these accounts are dependent on the taxes the airports generate of revenues.Passenger tickets,fuel, andcargo tax are the taxes that are paid by the passengers and airlines help fund these accounts.[16]
Airports revenues are divided into three major parts:aeronautical revenue, non-aeronautical revenue, and non-operating revenue. Aeronautical revenue makes up 50% in 2021 (from 54% and 48% in 2019 and 2020, non-aeronautical revenue makes up 34% (40%, 39% in previous years), and non-operating revenue makes up 16% (6%, 14%) of the total revenue of airports.[17]
Aeronautical revenue are generated through airline rents and landing, passenger service, parking, and hangar fees. Landing fees are charged per aircraft for landing an airplane in the airport property.[18]Landing fees are calculated through the landing weight and the size of the aircraft which varies but most of the airports have a fixed rate and charge extra for extra weight.[19] Aircraft parking is also a major revenue source for airports. Aircraft are parked for a certain amount of time before or after takeoff and have to pay to park there.[20] Every airport has its own rates of parking, for example,John F Kennedy airport in New York City charges $45 per hour for a plane of 100,000 pounds and the price increases with weight.[21]
Non-aeronautical revenue is gained through things other than aircraft operations. It includes lease revenue from compatible land-use development, non-aeronautical building leases, retail and concession sales, rental car operations, parking and in-airport advertising.[22] Concession revenue is one big part of non-aeronautical revenue airports make throughduty free, bookstores, restaurants and money exchange.[20] Car parking is a growing source of revenue for airports, as more people use theparking facilities of the airport.O'Hare International Airport in Chicago charges $2 per hour for every car.[23]
Many airports are local monopolies. To prevent them from abusing their market power, governments regulate how much airports may charge to airlines, usingprice-cap regulation.[24][25]
Airports are divided into landside and airside zones. The landside is subject to fewerspecial laws and is part of the public realm, while access to the airside zone is tightly controlled; only passengers with a validboarding pass,aircrew members with anidentification document, and airport staff with a validairside pass can access the airside.[26] Landside facilities may include publicly accessibleairport check-in desks, shops and ground transportation facilities.[27]
Airport security normally requires baggage checks, metal screenings of individual persons, and rules against any object that could be used as a weapon. Since theSeptember 11 attacks and theReal ID Act of 2005, airport security has dramatically increased and gotten tighter and stricter than ever before.
Baggage is scanned usingX-ray machines as passengers walk throughmetal detectorsAirport security normally requires baggage checks, metal screenings of individual persons, and rules against any object that could be used as a weapon. Since theSeptember 11 attacks and theReal ID Act of 2005, airport security has dramatically increased and gotten tighter and stricter than ever before.
Most major airports provide commercial outlets for products and services. Most of these companies, many of which are internationally known brands, are located within the departure areas. These include clothing boutiques and restaurants and in the US amounted to $4.2 billion in 2015.[29] Prices charged for items sold at these outlets are generally higher than those outside the airport. However, some airports now regulate costs to keep them comparable to "street prices". This term is misleading as prices often match themanufacturers' suggested retail price (MSRP) but are almost never discounted.[30]
Many new airports include walkthrough duty-free stores that require air passengers to enter a retail store upon exiting security.[31]
Apart from major fast food chains, some airport restaurants offer regional cuisine specialties for those in transit so that they may sample local food without leaving the airport.[32]
Airports may also contain premium andVIP services. The premium and VIP services may include expresscheck-in and dedicated check-in counters. These services are usually reserved forfirst andbusiness class passengers, premiumfrequent flyers, and members of the airline's clubs. Premium services may sometimes be open to passengers who are members of a different airline's frequent flyer program. This can sometimes be part of a reciprocal deal, as when multiple airlines are part of the same alliance, or as a ploy to attract premium customers away from rival airlines.
Sometimes these premium services will be offered to a non-premium passenger if the airline has made a mistake in handling of the passenger, such as unreasonable delays or mishandling of checked baggage.
Airline lounges frequently offer free or reduced cost food, as well as alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. Lounges themselves typically haveseating, showers, quiet areas, televisions, computer,Wi-Fi and Internet access, and power outlets that passengers may use for their electronic equipment. Some airline lounges employ baristas, bartenders and gourmet chefs.
Airlines sometimes operate multiple lounges within the one airport terminal allowing ultra-premium customers, such as first class customers, additional services, which are not available to other premium customers. Multiple lounges may also prevent overcrowding of the lounge facilities.
In addition to people, airports move cargo around the clock.Cargo airlines often have their own on-site and adjacent infrastructure to transfer parcels between ground and air.
Cargo Terminal Facilities are areas where international airports export cargo has to be stored after customs clearance and prior to loading the aircraft. Similarly, import cargo that is offloaded needs to be in bond before the consignee decides to take delivery. Areas have to be kept aside for examination of export and import cargo by the airport authorities. Designated areas or sheds may be given to airlines or freight forward ring agencies.
Every cargo terminal has a landside and an airside. The landside is where the exporters and importers through either their agents or by themselves deliver or collect shipments while the airside is where loads are moved to or from the aircraft. In addition, cargo terminals are divided into distinct areas – export, import, and interline or transshipment.
Airports require parking lots, for passengers who may leave the cars at the airport for a long period of time. Large airports will also have car-rental firms, taxi ranks, bus stops and sometimes a train station.
Airport operations are made possible by an organized network of trainedpersonnel, specialized equipment, andspatial data. After thousands of ground operations staff left the industry during theCOVID-19 pandemic, there have been discussions on the need for systemic improvements in three primary areas:[citation needed]
Air traffic controllers on the ground help direct aircraft through a region of airspace, communicating with aircraft to coordinate their paths. Their tasks include maintaining a safe distance between aircraft, avoiding congestion, and rerouting aircraft to deal with adverse weather.[34] Most air traffic control centers can be divided intoterminal control centers, which control the small, highly used region around an airport, andarea control centers, which control aircraften route to their destinations in a larger area.[35] Both terminal and area control centers useradio to communicate with pilots andradar to track their paths, and in terminal control centers visual observation can also be used, as most aircraft near a terminal control center are either taking off or landing.
Ground control is responsible for directing all ground traffic in designated "movement areas", except the traffic on runways. This includes planes, baggage trains, snowplows, grass cutters, fuel trucks, stair trucks, airline food trucks, conveyor belt vehicles and other vehicles. Ground Control will instruct these vehicles on which taxiways to use, which runway they will use (in the case of planes), where they will park, and when it is safe to cross runways. When a plane is ready to takeoff it will be turned over to tower control. Conversely, after a plane has landed it will depart the runway and be "handed over" from Tower to Ground Control.
Tower control is responsible for aircraft on the runway and in thecontrolled airspace immediately surrounding the airport. Tower controllers may use radar to locate an aircraft's position in 3D space, or they may rely on pilot position reports and visual observation. They coordinate the sequencing of aircraft in the traffic pattern and direct aircraft on how to safely join and leave the circuit. Aircraft which are only passing through the airspace must also contact tower control to be sure they remain clear of other traffic.
At all airports the use of atraffic pattern (often called atraffic circuit outside the US) is possible. They may help to assure smooth traffic flow between departing and arriving aircraft. There is no technical need within modern commercial aviation for performing this pattern,provided there is no queue. And due to the so-called SLOT-times, the overall traffic planning tend to assure landing queues are avoided. If for instance an aircraft approaches runway 17 (which has a heading of approx. 170 degrees) from the north (coming from 360/0 degrees heading towards 180 degrees), the aircraft will land as fast as possible by just turning 10 degrees and follow theglidepath, without orbit the runway for visual reasons, whenever this is possible. For smaller piston engined airplanes at smaller airfields withoutILS equipment, things are very different though.
Generally, this pattern is a circuit consisting of five "legs" that form a rectangle (two legs and the runway form one side, with the remaining legs forming three more sides). Each leg is named (see diagram), and ATC directs pilots on how to join and leave the circuit. Traffic patterns are flown at one specific altitude, usually 800 or 1,000 ft (244 or 305 m)above ground level (AGL). Standard traffic patterns areleft-handed, meaning all turns are made to the left. One of the main reason for this is that pilots sit on the left side of the airplane, and a Left-hand patterns improves their visibility of the airport and pattern. Right-handed patterns do exist, usually because of obstacles such as a mountain, or to reduce noise for local residents. The predetermined circuit helps traffic flow smoothly because all pilots know what to expect, and helps reduce the chance of amid-air collision.
At controlled airports, a circuit can be in place but is not normally used. Rather, aircraft (usually only commercial with long routes) request approach clearance while they are still hours away from the airport; the destination airport can then plan a queue of arrivals, and planes will be guided into one queue per active runway for a "straight-in" approach. While this system keeps the airspace free and is simpler for pilots, it requires detailed knowledge of how aircraft are planning to use the airport ahead of time and is therefore only possible with large commercial airliners on pre-scheduled flights. The system has recently become so advanced that controllers can predict whether an aircraft will be delayed on landing before it even takes off; that aircraft can then be delayed on the ground, rather than wasting expensive fuel waiting in the air.
There are a number of aids, both visual and electronic, though not at all airports. Avisual approach slope indicator (VASI) helps pilots fly the approach for landing. Some airports are equipped with aVHF omnidirectional range (VOR) to help pilots find the direction to the airport. VORs are often accompanied by adistance measuring equipment (DME) to determine the distance to the VOR. VORs are also located off airports, where they serve to provide airways for aircraft to navigate upon. In poor weather, pilots will use aninstrument landing system (ILS) to find the runway and fly the correct approach, even if they cannot see the ground. The number of instrument approaches based on the use of theGlobal Positioning System (GPS) is rapidly increasing and may eventually become the primary means for instrument landings.
Larger airports sometimes offerprecision approach radar (PAR), but these systems are more common at military air bases than civilian airports. The aircraft's horizontal and vertical movement is tracked via radar, and the controller tells the pilot his position relative to theapproach slope. Once the pilots can see the runway lights, they may continue with a visual landing.
Airport guidance signs provide direction and information to taxiing aircraft and airport vehicles. Smaller aerodromes may have few or no signs, relying instead on diagrams and charts.
Taxiway lights use color codes to mark out different sections of thetaxiway. Blue lights normally indicate the edge of the taxiway, and green lights are located in its center. Red lights are placed where therunway begins, and are turned off once the pilot has gained clearance from theair traffic control to take off.[36]
Weather observations at the airport are crucial to safe takeoffs and landings. In the United States and Canada, the vast majority of airports, large and small, will either have some form ofautomated airport weather station, whether an AWOS, ASOS, or AWSS, a human observer or a combination of the two. These weather observations, predominantly in theMETAR format, are available over the radio, throughautomatic terminal information service (ATIS), via the ATC or theflight service station.
Planes take-off and landinto the wind to achieve maximum performance. Because pilots need instantaneous information during landing, awindsock can also be kept in view of the runway. Aviation windsocks are made with lightweight material, withstand strong winds and some are lit up after dark or in foggy weather. Because visibility of windsocks is limited, often multiple glow-orange windsocks are placed on both sides of the runway.[37]
Each airport hires its own ground crew to process flights, cargo, passengers, and baggage. When a flight arrives, ramp services navigate a baggage cart to the aircraft. Bags are then sorted and transported by baggage handlers. Ramp services handle aircraft marshaling, the process in which aircraft arrive or depart from the gate. Once passengers and/or cargo is unloaded, a cleaning crew prepares the aircraft for its next flight by loading supplies and preparing other in-flight services. Ground crew will fuel the aircraft, and other visual inspections are conducted. Efficient work allows aircraft to have fast turnaround times of as little as 25 minutes.[38]
Like industrial equipment or facility management, airports require tailor-made maintenance management due to their complexity. With many tangible assets spread over a large area in different environments, these infrastructures must therefore effectively monitor these assets and store spare parts to maintain them at an optimal level of service.[39]
To manage these airport assets, several solutions are competing for the market:CMMS (computerized maintenance management system) predominate, and mainly enable a company's maintenance activity to be monitored, planned, recorded and rationalized.[39]
Aviation safety is an important concern in the operation of an airport, and almost every airfield includes equipment and procedures for handling emergency situations.Airport crash tender crews are equipped for dealing with airfield accidents, crew and passenger extractions, and the hazards of highly flammableaviation fuel. The crews are also trained to deal with situations such as bomb threats,hijacking, and terrorist activities.
Hazards to aircraft include debris, nesting birds, and reduced friction levels due to environmental conditions such as ice, snow, or rain. Part of runway maintenance isairfield rubber removal which helps maintain friction levels. The fields must be kept clear of debris using cleaning equipment so that loose material does not become a projectile and enter an engine duct (seeforeign object damage). In adverse weather conditions, ice and snow clearing equipment can be used to improve traction on the landing strip. For waiting aircraft, equipment is used to spray specialdeicing fluids on the wings.
Many airports are built near open fields orwetlands. These tend to attract bird populations, which can pose a hazard to aircraft in the form ofbird strikes. Airport crews often need to discourage birds from taking up residence.
Some airports are located next to parks, golf courses, or other low-density uses of land. Other airports are located near densely populated urban or suburban areas.
An airport can have areas where collisions between aircraft on the ground tend to occur. Records are kept of anyincursions where aircraft or vehicles are in an inappropriate location, allowing these "hot spots" to be identified. These locations then undergo special attention by transportation authorities (such as the FAA in the US) and airport administrators.
During the 1980s, a phenomenon known asmicroburst became a growing concern due toaircraft accidents caused by microburstwind shear, such asDelta Air Lines Flight 191. Microburst radar was developed as an aid to safety during landing, giving two to five minutes' warning to aircraft in the vicinity of the field of a microburst event.
Some airfields now have a special surface known as soft concrete at the end of the runway (stopway or blastpad) that behaves somewhat likestyrofoam, bringing the plane to a relatively rapid halt as the material disintegrates. These surfaces are useful when the runway is located next to a body of water or other hazard, and prevent the planes from overrunning the end of the field.
Airports often haveon-site firefighters to respond to emergencies. These use specialized vehicles, known asairport crash tenders. Most civil aviation authorities have required levels of on-site emergency response capabilities based on an airport's traffic. At airports where civil and military operations share a common set of runways and infrastructure, emergency response is often managed by the relevant military unit as part of their base's operations.
"FLF Panther" airport crash tender in GermanyRoad crossing of (Shetland) A970 withSumburgh Airport's runway. The movable barrier closes when aircraft land or take off.
Aircraft noise is a major cause ofnoise disturbance to residents living near airports. Sleep can be affected if the airports operate night and early morning flights. Aircraft noise occurs not only from take-offs and landings but also from ground operations including maintenance and testing of aircraft. Noise can haveother health effects as well. Other noises and environmental concerns are vehicle traffic causing noise and pollution on roads leading to the airport.[40]
The construction of new airports or addition of runways to existing airports, is often resisted by local residents because of the effect on countryside, historical sites, and local flora and fauna. Due to the risk of collision between birds and aircraft, large airports undertake population control programs where they frighten or shoot birds.[41]
The construction of airports has been known to change local weather patterns. For example, because they often flatten out large areas, they can be susceptible to fog in areas where fog rarely forms. In addition, they generally replace trees and grass with pavement, they often change drainage patterns in agricultural areas, leading to more flooding, run-off and erosion in the surrounding land.[42][citation needed] Airports are often built on low-lying coastal land, globally 269 airports are at risk ofcoastal flooding now.[43] A temperature rise of 2°C – consistent with theParis Agreement – would lead to 100 airports being below mean sea level and 364 airports at risk of flooding.[43] If global mean temperature rise exceeds this then as many as 572 airports will be at risk by 2100, leading to major disruptions without appropriate adaptation.[43]
A 2019 report from the Cooperative Research Programs of the USTransportation Research Board showed all airports have a role to play in advancing greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction initiatives. Small airports have demonstrated leadership by using their less complex organizational structure to implement newer technologies and to serve as a proving ground for their feasibility. Large airports have the economic stability and staff resources necessary to grow in-house expertise and fund comprehensive new programs.[44]
A growing number of airports are installing solarphotovoltaic arrays to offset their electricity use.[45][46] TheNational Renewable Energy Lab has shown this can be done safely.[47] This can also be done on the roofs of the airports and it has been found that the solar panels on these buildings work more effectively when compared to residential panels.[48][clarification needed]
The world's first airport to be fully powered by solar energy is located atKochi, India.[49][50]
As a part of their sustainability efforts, more and more airports are starting to explore the consequences of more electric aircraft coming into service. Electric aircraft require much energy; operating 49 small 50-passenger short-range battery electric aircraft would demand at least 16 GWh/year,[51] and with short turnaround times between different flights, the charging powers have to be substantial. To tackle these issues, more airports are starting to look into alternative energy production such as solar power and wind power, but also how to use airport areas for biomass production.[52][53] Another solution investigated is to use energy storage to charge during the night and use to charge the aircraft during daytime.[53][54]
Airports, as major international travel hubs, have the potential to be significant transmission points for infectious diseases. A notable study conducted during the peak of the 2015–2016flu season at Helsinki-Vantaa airport in Finland revealed that commonly touched surfaces in airports, especially the plastic security screening trays, are highly susceptible to contamination by respiratory viruses. These trays are touched by hundreds of passengers daily and, being made of plastic, a non-porous material, provide an environment where viruses can survive for extended periods. In comparison, bathroom surfaces in the same airport tested negative for respiratory viruses, possibly indicating a heightened awareness of hygiene in these spaces.[55][56]
Hand hygiene plays a pivotal role in preventing the spread of infectious diseases in airports. Research indicates that only about 70% of individuals wash their hands after using the toilet, and of those, only 50% do so correctly. In airport settings, just one in five individuals maintain clean hands—defined as washing with soap for at least 15 seconds in the preceding hour. Given the frequent touching of shared surfaces in airports, such as trays, railings, and touch panels, this poses a significant risk for disease transmission. A study from theUniversity of Cyprus andMIT used models and simulations to demonstrate that increasing hand cleanliness from 20% to 30% in all airports could reduce the potential global impact of a disease by 24%. If cleanliness levels reached 60%, this impact could decrease by 69%. Focusing on just the top 10 most influential airports for disease spread, enhancing hand hygiene practices could still significantly reduce disease transmission rates from 45% to 37%. The findings underscore the importance of promoting hand-washing in airports as a key measure in preventing the global spread of diseases.[57][58]
An airbase, sometimes referred to as anair station orairfield, provides basing and support ofmilitary aircraft. Some airbases, known asmilitary airports, provide facilities similar to their civilian counterparts. For example,RAF Brize Norton in the UK has a terminal that caters to passengers for theRoyal Air Force's scheduled flights to theFalkland Islands. Some airbases are co-located with civilian airports, sharing the same ATC facilities, runways, taxiways and emergency services, but with separate terminals, parking areas and hangars.Bardufoss Airport,Bardufoss Air Station in Norway andPune Airport in India are examples of this.
Anaircraft carrier is a warship that functions as a mobile airbase. Aircraft carriers allow anaval force to projectair power without having to depend on local bases for land-based aircraft. After their development in World War I, aircraft carriers replaced the battleship as the centrepiece of a modern fleet during World War II.
Most airports in the United States are designated "private-use airports" meaning that, whether publicly- or privately owned, the airport is not open or available for use by the public (although use of the airport may be made available by invitation of the owner or manager).
The earliest aircraft takeoff and landing sites were grassy fields.[59] The plane could approach at any angle that provided a favorable wind direction. A slight improvement was the dirt-only field, which eliminated the drag from grass. However, these functioned well only in dry conditions. Later, concrete surfaces would allow landings regardless of meteorological conditions.
Beijing Nanyuan Airport in China, which was built to accommodate planes in 1904, and airships in 1907, opened in 1910.[60] It was in operation until September 2019.Pearson Field Airport inVancouver, Washington, United States, was built to accommodate planes in 1905 and airships in 1911, and is still in use as of February 2024.[61]
Hamburg Airport opened in January 1911, making it the oldest commercial airport in the world which is still in operation.Bremen Airport opened in 1913 and remains in use, although it served as an American military field between 1945 and 1949.Amsterdam Airport Schiphol opened on September 16, 1916, as a military airfield, but has acceptedcivil aircraft only since December 17, 1920, allowingSydney Airport—which started operations in January 1920—to claim to be one of the world's oldest continuously operating commercial airports.[62]Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport in the US opened in 1920 and has been in continuous commercial service since. It serves about 35,000,000 passengers each year and continues to expand, recently opening a new 11,000-foot (3,355 m) runway. Of the airports constructed during this early period in aviation, it is one of the largest and busiest that is still currently operating.Don Mueang International Airport near Bangkok, Thailand, opened 1914, is also a contender, as well as theRome Ciampino Airport, which opened in 1916. Increased aircraft traffic during World War I led to the construction of landing fields. Aircraft had to approach these from certain directions and this led to the development of aids for directing the approach and landing slope.
Following the war, some of these military airfields added civil facilities for handling passenger traffic. One of the earliest such fields wasParis – Le Bourget Airport atLe Bourget, near Paris. The first airport to operate scheduled international commercial services wasHounslow Heath Aerodrome in August 1919, but it was closed and supplanted byCroydon Airport in March 1920.[63] In 1922, the first permanent airport and commercial terminal solely for commercial aviation was opened atFlughafen Devau near what was thenKönigsberg, East Prussia. The airports of this era used a paved "apron", which permitted night flying as well as landing heavier aircraft.
The first lighting used on an airport was during the latter part of the 1920s; in the 1930sapproach lighting came into use. These indicated the proper direction and angle of descent. The colours and flash intervals of these lights became standardized under theInternational Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). In the 1940s, the slope-line approach system was introduced. This consisted of two rows of lights that formed a funnel indicating an aircraft's position on theglideslope. Additional lights indicated incorrect altitude and direction.
AfterWorld War II, airport design became more sophisticated. Passenger buildings were being grouped together in an island, with runways arranged in groups about the terminal. This arrangement permitted expansion of the facilities. But it also meant that passengers had to travel further to reach their plane.
An improvement in the landing field was the introduction of grooves in the concrete surface. These run perpendicular to the direction of the landing aircraft and serve to draw off excess rainwater that could build up in front of the plane's wheels.
Airport construction boomed during the 1960s with the increase injet aircraft traffic. Runways were extended out to 3,000 m (9,800 ft). The fields were constructed out ofreinforced concrete using aslip-form machine that produces a continuous slab with no disruptions along the length. The early 1960s also saw the introduction of jet bridge systems to modern airport terminals, an innovation which eliminated outdoor passenger boarding. These systems became commonplace in the United States by the 1970s.[citation needed]
The malicious use of UAVs has led to the deployment ofcounter unmanned air system (C-UAS) technologies such as the AaroniaAARTOS which have been installed on major international airports.[64][65]
Each civil aviation authority provides a source of information about airports in their country. This will contain information on airport elevation, airport lighting, runway information, communications facilities and frequencies, hours of operation, nearbyNAVAIDs and contact information where prior arrangement for landing is necessary.
Australia
Information can be found on-line in theEn route Supplement Australia (ERSA)[66] which is published byAirservices Australia, a government owned corporation charged with managing Australian ATC.
Brazil
Infraero is responsible for the airports in Brazil
The US uses theAirport/Facility Directory (A/FD) (now officially termed the Chart Supplement) published in seven volumes.DAFIF also includes extensive airport data but has been unavailable to the public at large since 2006.
A comprehensive, consumer/business directory of commercial airports in the world (primarily for airports as businesses, rather than for pilots) is organized by the trade groupAirports Council International.
^Drescher, Cynthia (November 5, 2018)."How Airports Keep Birds Away".Condé Nast Traveler.Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. RetrievedJanuary 6, 2023.
^Meindl, Markus; März, Martin; Weber, Kai Johannes (March 2023). "Ground-based power supply system to operate hybrid-electric aircraft for future regional airports".2023 IEEE International Conference on Electrical Systems for Aircraft, Railway, Ship Propulsion and Road Vehicles & International Transportation Electrification Conference (ESARS-ITEC). pp. 1–6.doi:10.1109/ESARS-ITEC57127.2023.10114820.ISBN979-8-3503-4689-3.
^Liang, Yawen; Mouli, Gautham Ram Chandra; Bauer, Pavol (2023). "Charging Technology for Electric Aircraft: State of the Art, Trends, and Challenges".IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification.10 (3):6761–6788.doi:10.1109/TTE.2023.3333536.ISSN2332-7782.
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Burghouwt, Guillaume. (2012)Airline network development in Europe and its implications for airport planning (Ashgate, 2012).
Gillen, David (2011). "The evolution of airport ownership and governance".Journal of Air Transport Management.17:3–13.doi:10.1016/j.jairtraman.2010.10.003.
Gordon, Alastair. (2008)Naked Airport: A Cultural History of the World's Most Revolutionary Structure (University of Chicago Press, 2008).
Halpern, Nigel, and Anne Graham. (2013)Airport marketing (Routledge, 2013).
Horonjeff, Robert, Francis X. McKelvey, William J. Sproule, and Seth B. Young. (2010)Planning and Design of Airports 5th ed. (McGraw-Hill, 2010).
Hubregtse, Menno. (2020)Wayfinding, Consumption, and Air Terminal Design (Routledge, 2020).
Pearman, Hugh. (2004)Airports: A Century of Architecture (Harry N. Abrams, 2004).
Salter, Mark. 2008.Politics at the Airport (University of Minnesota Press). This book brings together leading scholars to examine how airports both shape and are shaped by current political, social, and economic conditions.
Sheard, Nicholas. (2019) "Airport size and urban growth."Economica 86.342 (2019): 300–335; In USA, airport size has a positive effect on local employment, with an elasticity of 0.04.
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