Born between 1720 and 1722, Ahmad Shah'searly life saw him accompanyNader Shah in his campaigns until Nader's assassination in 1747, resulting in thedivision of the Afsharid Empire. Ahmad Shah took advantage and wascrowned inKandahar, establishing his rule in Afghanistan and founding the Durrani Empire.
Throughout his reign, Ahmad Shah fought over fifteen major military campaigns. Nine of them were centered inIndia,[c] three in Khorasan, and three in Afghan Turkestan. Having rarely lost a battle, historians widely recognize Ahmad Shah as a brilliant military leader and tactician, typically being compared to military leaders such asMarlborough,Mahmud of Ghazni,Babur, andNader Shah. Ahmad Shah has been described as one of the greatest military leaders of eighteenth century Asia, as well the "greatest general of Asia of his time", and as one of the greatest conquerors in Asian history.
Name and title
His birth name was Ahmad Khan, and he was born into theAbdali tribe ofPashtuns. After his accession to power in 1747, he became known as Ahmad Shah. His tribe also changed their name from Abdali to Durrani.[3][4][5] Afghans often refer to him asAhmad Shāh Bābā, meaning "Ahmad Shahthe Father".[6][7]
In historical sources, his tribe's name is interchangeably used between Abdali and Durrani, and he is commonly referred to by names including Ahmad Shah Abdali.[3][8]
Early life
Ahmad Shah was born between 1720 and 1722, with sources differing on whether his birthplace was inHerat in present-dayAfghanistan; orMultan in present-dayPakistan.[9] Modern scholarship generally favors Multan as his birthplace. However, this is disputed by historian Sajjad Nejatie, who argues the majority of sources from Ahmad Shah's time state he was born in Herat and not in Multan, including theTarikh-i Ahmad Shahi, a primary source commissioned by Ahmad Shah himself.[10]
His father,Zaman Khan, was theemir of Herat. Zaman Khan had died in 1721, as a result, Ahmad Shah was raised alongside his brother Zulfiqar Khan inShindand andFarah. In the mid-1720s, Zulfiqar Khan was invited to rule Herat. Ahmad Shah doesn't appear in historical records again until 1731–1732, when Zulfiqar Khan was defeated by the Iranian monarchNader Shah. This forced both Zulfiqar Khan and Ahmad Shah to flee toKandahar, where they remained political prisoners ofHussain Hotak, theHotak king.[11][12][13]
After Nader Shahconquered Kandahar, Ahmad Shah and Zulfiqar Khan were freed. Ahmad Shah spent much of his early life in the service of Nader Shah. Accompanying him on hisinvasion of India between 1738 and 1739. Ahmad Shah was later resettled inMazandaran along with his brother. According to theEncyclopædia Iranica, Ahmad Shah may have been appointed governor of Mazandaran.[5] After the death of his brother, Ahmad Shah enlisted in theAfsharid military in 1742. Some sources suggest only Zulfiqar Khan went to Mazandaran, while Ahmad Shah remained in Nader Shah's service as an officer.[14][15][16]
During Nader Shah's invasion of India, Ahmad Shah possibly commanded aregiment ofDurrani tribesmen. His forces participated in thesacking of Delhi and were involved in massacres during the invasion.[17] According to legend,Nizam ul-Mulk, theMughal governor ofHyderabad, supposedly an expert inphysiognomy, predicted Ahmad Shah would become king. Nader Shah is said to have taken notice, clipping part of Ahmad Shah's ear as a symbolic gesture, reportedly saying: "When you become a king, this will remind you of me". Nader Shah also requested Ahmad Shah be generous with his descendants.[18][19] Nejatie is skeptical of the account, and remarks that evidence of Ahmad Shah being fully involved in the campaign is inconclusive.[20]
In 1744, Ahmad Shah was promoted to Nader Shah's personal staff. In acampaign against the Ottomans, Ahmad Shah distinguished himself and was permitted to raise a contingent of 3–4,000 Durrani tribesmen by Nader Shah. The unit became one of Nader Shah's most trusted units, and he increasingly relied on it to suppress the influence of his other commanders, whom he suspected of plotting a rebellion or his assassination.[21][4]
Death of Nader Shah
Nader Shah's assassination in 1747
In June 1747, Nader Shah was convinced hispersonal guard intended toassassinate him. As a result, he summoned Ahmad Shah and other loyal commanders. Nader Shah ordered Ahmad Shah to assemble hisDurrani regiments and to arrest his personal guard. If the personal guard resisted, Ahmad Shah was given permission to kill them all. He was ordered to do this at first light. Nader Shah then chose to sleep with his favorite wife, but did so outside the royal tent, where the same guards he had accused of treachery presumednight duty. Meanwhile, Ahmad Shah with his regiments was stationed at the defenses of the camp.[22]
News of Nader Shah's plan leaked, with the conspirators being forced to act. Four conspirators entered the royal enclosure and Nader Shah's tent atQuchan, assassinating him.[23][24] Chaos ensued afterward, and plans to cover up the killing by the conspirators failed. They resorted to pillaging the royal enclosure while news of Nader Shah's death rapidly spread. The next morning, the royal guard attacked Ahmad Shah's forces, who drove away the Persians andQizilbash despite being heavily outnumbered. Ahmad Shah then entered the tent of Nader Shah, taking theKoh-i-Noor diamond and a signet ring from his body.[25][26]
Return to Kandahar
Having driven off the Persians and Qizilbash, Ahmad Shah departed for Kandahar with his regiments, and hisUzbek ally, Hajji Bi Ming. Ahmad Shah first resolved the dispute of leadership, asserting himself as the leader of Durrani tribesmen by forcing the former leader to step down. Ahmad Shah also killed 'Abd al-Ghani Khan, his uncle and the governor of Kandahar to consolidate full control over the Durrani regiments. Following this act, his forces grew to over 6,000 men.[27]
Ahmad Shah then moved throughKhabushan, advancing toKashmar. On the way, Ahmad Shah accumulated supplies for his army before proceeding toTorbat-e Heydarieh, where he received news thatAdel Shah had dispatched a force to block the Afghan advance. Ahmad Shah responded by leading his forces toTun and thenFarah, where they defeated Adel Shah's army. With Farah under his control, the Afghans continued on toGrishk, and then Kandahar.[28][27]
While en route to Kandahar, Ahmad Shah recovered a military convoy carrying the annual tribute fromSindh. Estimates of the convoy's value vary widely, ranging from 3 to 260 million rupees. The convoy was escorted byMohammad Taqi Khan Shirazi, a disgruntled former officer of Nader Shah, and Nasir Khan, the governor ofKabul andPeshawar. Taqi Khan joined Ahmad Shah and divided the wealth, while Nasir Khan refused and was subsequently imprisoned. He was later released on the conditions he pay an annual tribute of 500,000 rupees and acknowledge Ahmad Shah'ssuzerainty. Following this, Ahmad Shah's army grew to over 18,000 men, and came to includewar elephants.[29][30][31] Sindh would also enter Afghan suzerainty and see tribute imposed by Ahmad Shah during this period.[32][33]
Upon reaching Kandahar, Ahmad Shah encamped inNaderabad and prepared to be crowned king. According to legend, Ahmad Shah declared aJirga summoning alltribal leaders, who unanimously selected Ahmad Shah as king. A piece of wheat or barley was then placed on Ahmad Shah's turban.[34] HistorianGanda Singh cites this account, despite no contemporary evidence suggesting this event ever occurred.[35]
In reality, Ahmad Shah was brought to power through a nine-man military council. Ahmad Shah's accession was disputed by Jamal Khan, the leader of theBarakzai tribe. The Barakzai were the most powerful clan of the Durranis centered in theKandahar andHelmand regions. The dispute over accession continued until an agreement was made where Jamal Khan would submit to Ahmad Shah as king, while Ahmad Shah would make Jamal Khan and his descendantswazir. With an agreement reached, Sabir Shah, Ahmad Shah's advisor, took a piece of greenery or stalk and attached it to Ahmad Shah's cap, officially crowning him. Scholars state Ahmad Shah's rise to power was effectively a militarycoup rather than anelection.[36]
Following his accession, Ahmad Shah adopted the title ofPadishah,[37] and theepithet "Durr-i Durrān", meaning "Pearl of Pearls", also changing the name of his tribe from Abdali toDurrani.[38][39][4]
Reign as Shah (1747–1772)
Portrait ofNader Shah, who Ahmad Shah often envisioned himself as the successor of
Administration
At the beginning of his rule, Ahmad Shah'sempire consisted of Kandahar, Helmand, andFarah. TheHazaras ofBala Murghab and theKhanate of Kalat ruled byNasir Khan also came under Afghan suzerainty.[40] However, Ahmad Shah had no administrative experience, neither did most of his closest advisors. As a result, he chose to adopt a government style similar to theMughals andSafavids, with his main idea of a government based on anabsolute monarchy. A tribal council ruled in hand with Ahmad Shah, serving as a type ofcabinet. However, Ahmad Shah had made the positions of his cabinethereditary, thus making it difficult to dismiss advisors without causing conflict. Their roles, were almost purelyde-jure, and tasks were delegated to subordinates.[41]
The civil service of the empire was dominated by theQizilbash, as most of the Durrani elite wereilliterate. The Qizilbash also significantly formed the major part of Ahmad Shah'sbodyguard,[42] counterbalancing other Durrani leaders and tribes. These complications and effectively divided government made the administration's functioning difficult, and caused ethnic tension between the Qizilbash and the tribal council of Ahmad Shah.[43]
Further complications erupted in Ahmad Shah's administration after he exempted his own tribe from taxation. Other Afghan tribes and ethnicities were discontent with this, as they were also not allowed to serve in the administration of the empire. This disquiet was further exacerbated by Ahmad Shah when he gave the right ofrevenue collection to the highest bidder. The victors of these auctions, typically members of Ahmad Shah's own tribe, were completely free in taxing as much as they wished. While members of the Durrani tribe rapidly became rich, some landholders were pushed into complete debt, forcing many to sell their lands or flee the kingdom. Their land was also likely to be bought by the Durranis who had driven them tobankruptcy.[43]
Ahmad Shah envisioned himself as the successor ofNader Shah. Instead of establishing a capable administration, Ahmad Shah focused on wars and military campaigns to supply his treasury, with any downturns easily being covered by the treasures of war. Throughout his reign, he rarely spent his time in Kandahar, the capital of his empire,[5] and instead pursued military campaigns, returning only to restore stability after conflict. By the end of his reign, Ahmad Shah had launched over fifteen military campaigns, nine of them in India, three inKhorasan, and three inAfghan Turkestan.[44]
Afghanistan was a relatively poor country at the time. As a result, Ahmad Shah, following in the footsteps of conquerors before him such asMahmud of Ghazni,[47] invading India to plunder and obtain wealth. Adopting the practices ofMuhammad of Ghor, Ahmad Shah also invaded India to establish his own political dominance. Thepower vacuum following the decline of theMughal Empire allowed him to repeat extensive campaigns, while also reviving the prominence of Afghans in India. Furthermore, by institutionalizing thecasus belli ofholy war, Ahmad Shah was able to direct the majority of his campaigns toward India.[48] Moreover, Ahmad Shah saw invasions as the proper way to propagate his strength. The Afghan chiefs andnobility initially saw him as an upstart, and as a result, Ahmad Shah sought victories to legitimize himself.[49]
Military campaigns
Campaign to Kabul (1747)
Weeks after Ahmad Shah's accession, Nasir Khan, the governor of Kabul,Ghazni, andPeshawar revolted against him. Ahmad Shah had previously imprisoned Nasir Khan and ransomed him for an annual tribute of 500,000 rupees. While Nasir Khan was attempting to raise this amount, theGhilzai tribes refused to pay their taxes to theDurranis, and only wished to do so to their Mughal sovereign,Muhammad Shah. With a growing Ghilzai revolt, Nasir Khan declared his independence from Durrani suzerainty and began raising an army ofUzbeks andHazaras, while also frantically asking Muhammad Shah for aid.[50][51]
Lithograph depicting the city ofGhazni and itscitadel
In autumn 1747, Ahmad Shah began his campaign against Nasir Khan. Appointing his nephew Luqman Khan as the regent in Kandahar while he left on campaign, Ahmad Shah marched with his army toward Ghazni only to be halted atQalati Ghilji by his former allies, theTokhi Ghilzai. Ahmad Shah stormed the fortress of Qalati, bringing the Tokhis to submission and annexing their lands over the following decades.[50] Ahmad Shah continued towards Ghazni, defeating the governor deputed there and conquering it with little opposition.[51][52]
Before advancing on Kabul, Ahmad Shah garnered the support of theSuleimankhel tribes in the region, while Taqi Khan managed to secure the defection of the Qizilbash garrison in Kabul so they would hand over the city once the Afghan army arrived. The acceptance of these terms forced Nasir Khan to flee to Peshawar, and when Ahmad Shah arrived at Kabul in October 1747, the Qizilbash handed over theBala Hissar fortress. Ahmad Shah awarded the Qizilbash by giving them districts inChindawol andMurad Khani.[50][53][54]
With Kabul under his control, Ahmad Shah dispatched hisCommander-in-chief,Jahan Khan, toward Peshawar with the intention of advancing as far asAttock. Jahan Khan quickly overranJalalabad, and Nasir Khan was unable mount a defense at theKhyber Pass, forcing him to flee. The Afghan armies approached Peshawar, prompting manyPashtun tribes to declare support for them, including theYusufzai,Afridi, andKhattak. Overwhelmed, Nasir Khan withdrew from Peshawar and fled toDelhi.[55][56]
Shāh Nawāz Khān, theMughalgovernor ofPunjab, opened correspondence with the Afghans after they had seized Peshawar. Shah Nawaz, having toppled his brother from power to assume control over Punjab, was opposed by theMughal emperorMuhammad Shah, who refused to recognize him as governor. As a result, the Afghans promised to affirm Shah Nawaz as governor of Punjab if he accepted Durrani suzerainty. Shah Nawaz accepted this offer, but the Mughalvizier promised to confirm him as governor if he opposed the Afghan invasion instead, which Shah Nawaz accepted.[57][58][59]
The betrayal saw Ahmad Shah dispatch Sabir Shah to try and convince Shah Nawaz once again. However, after insulting Shah Nawaz, Sabir Shah was imprisoned and executed, and Shah Nawaz began marching against the Afghan army.[60][61][62] Ahmad Shah crossed theRavi River on 10 January, and encamped at theShalimar Gardens outsideLahore. The armies of Shah Nawaz and Ahmad Shah fought thebattle of Lahore on 11 January. When the battle began, the Afghan regiments of Shah Nawaz's army defected. Despite commanding a much larger army then the Afghans, the Mughals were defeated, and Shah Nawaz fled toDelhi.[63][64][65]
With their victory, the Afghans entered Lahore, beginning to plunder the city and massacring its inhabitants. Thousands were also conscripted, while the Mughals began mobilizing a larger army. Ahmad Shah left Lahore on 19 February with 30,000 men, beginning to advance on Delhi. He capturedSirhind and continued advancing, outmaneuvering the colossalMughal force of 200,000 until they were caught atManupur, where they battled. The Afghan army pressed the attack until disaster struck when the ammunition stores of the Afghan army caught fire and exploded, incinerating 1,000 men and forcing a complete withdrawal from the battlefield.[66][67][68] The Mughals did not pursue the Afghan army due to the death of Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah and the ensuing turmoil in the camp.[69]
Withdrawing to Lahore, Ahmad Shah became aware that his nephew, Luqman Khan, who had been left as regent in Kandahar, had revolted. Ahmad Shah immediately returned to Afghanistan and marched on Kandahar, quickly quelling the revolt. He spent the summer of 1748 preparing for his second invasion of India.[70][71][72] The timing was significant for Ahmad Shah, asQamar-ud-Din, a significant commander for the Mughals at Manupur, had been killed, while Muhammad Shah's death saw him succeeded byBahadur Shah, who largely focused on pleasure-seeking. Ahmad Shah also wished to avenge his defeat.[73]
Second invasion of India (1748)
Portrait ofMoin-ul-Mulk, the Mughal governor of Punjab (r. 1748–1753)
In November 1748, Ahmad Shah began his second invasion of India.[54]Moin-ul-Mulk, the new governor of Punjab, urgently requested reinforcement from the Mughals in Delhi. Moin-ul-Mulk, who wanted to avoid fighting the Afghans on open plains, remained on the defensive atSodhra, as an ongoing power struggle with Nasir Khan, the former Mughal governor of Kabul, threatened his position. As a result, Jahan Khan was able to raid the countryside, including theChaj Doab, whilst a party ofSikhs raided Lahore.[70][74]
Ahmad Shah advanced to Kopra and engaged in skirmishes with Moin-ul-Mulk's army. Overwhelmed with the rising power of the Sikhs and the Afghan invasion, Moin-ul-Mulk opened negotiations, ceding the revenues ofGujrat, Aurangabad,Sialkot, andPasrur. These districts generated yearly revenues of 1.4 million rupees (equivalent to ₹996,148,044 in 2023). Ahmad Shah returned to Afghanistan following the treaty, crossing through Peshawar,Dera Ismail Khan, andDera Ghazi Khan.[75][74][76] The regions of Dera Ismail Khan and Dera Ghazi Khan fell as he returned to Afghanistan, confirming the former tribal chiefs as governors in the region under his suzerainty.[77]
Detail ofShahrokh Shah, ruler of the Afsharids, in court
Between 1749 and 1750, after his second invasion of India, Ahmad Shah launched his first campaign intoKhorasan. Intent on conqueringHerat, Ahmad Shah besieged the city for a long period of time until it finally fell in late 1750.[78][79][80] With the fall of Herat, Ahmad Shah continued his campaign into Khorasan, besieging the fortress of Nun in the viscinity ofMashhad where its governor subsequently surrendered after a short siege.[81]
Ahmad Shah proceeded intoAfsharid territory and initiated thesiege of Mashhad, where he remained until November 1750. Attempts to storm the city by the Afghans were unsuccessful. Historians Jonathan Lee andHari Ram Gupta state Iranian monarchShahrokh Shah surrendered to Ahmad Shah personally so he could raise the siege. Shahrokh Shah accepted Afghan suzerainty, paying large tribute and releasing members of Ahmad Shah's family.[82][81] However, historian Christine Noelle-Karimi states Ahmad Shah lifted the siege on 10 November, and was intent on returning years later. Shahrokh Shah had released a son of Ahmad Shah, possibly beingTimur Shah Durrani, or Ahmad Shah's youngest son, Sanjar Mirza.[78]
Nonetheless, after the siege of Mashhad, Ahmad Shah advanced toNishapur, which was ruled by theQara Bayat Amirdom. He besieged the city and demanded its surrender, its governor Jafar Khan refused despite only having a few thousand soldiers in the garrison. Ahmad Shah ordered the walls to be breached utilizingcannons, and the Afghans broke through. However, the defenders of the city had established defenses and a trap, which the Afghans fell into. Close-quarters combat began after, in which Jafar Khan was killed. His nephew, Abbas Quli, took command of the garrison and repulsed the Afghan forces, inflicting horrific casualties on them, including some 12,000 dead, and thousands more wounded.[83][78][84]
With his army seriously weakened, Ahmad Shah ordered a retreat to Herat. The harsh winter weather killed thousands while the Afghans retreated,[78] and Ahmad Shah was forced to leave behind much of his baggage, including his artillery and food supplies. When the Afghans reached theHari Rud river, it was completely frozen. Attempting to cross it caused much of the ice to break, killing even more men and sweeping awaypack animals for the army.[85][84] Upon the armies' return to Herat, Ahmad Shah faced an assassination conspiracy from Darwish Ali Khan Hazara, the Durrani governor of Herat. The conspiracy was quickly quelled, Darwish Ali was imprisoned, and Ahmad Shah appointed Timur Shah as the new governor.[83][84]
Possibly due to Ahmad Shah's struggle in Khorasan,[86]Moin-ul-Mulk failed to pay the agreed tribute to Ahmad Shah from the revenues of Gujrat, Aurangabad, Sialkot, and Pasrur. This induced Ahmad Shah to invade India again in November 1751, leading his forces to invadePunjab. Moin-ul-Mulk immediately sent 900,000 rupees forward as tribute, which Ahmad Shah seized and continued his march. With theadvance guard under Jahan Khan, Ahmad Shah led his forces throughRohtas, Gujrat, andShahdara. Jahan Khan's forces pillaged the countryside while skirmishes began with Moin-ul-Mulk, who raised his own force to meet the Afghans in battle.[87] The advance of Ahmad Shah triggered mass panic in Lahore, with many fleeing to Delhi orJammu for safety.[88]
In January 1752, Ahmad Shah forded theRavi in secrecy at Ghazipur, before advancing on Lahore. Jahan Khan began advancing on Lahore as well, initially being driven out of Faiz Bagh and instead encamping at the Shalimar gardens. Moin-ul-Mulk immediately dashed back to Lahore, which the Afghans besieged for over four months. Receiving no aid from the Mughals or any other nobles, Moin-ul-Mulk settled for apitched battle with the Afghans outside of Lahore.[89][90]
On 6 March, after afierce battle, Moin-ul-Mulk was defeated and surrendered to Ahmad Shah, who received him in person. Impressed by the efforts of Moin-ul-Mulk in his resistance, Ahmad Shah instated him as the governor of Lahore under Durrani suzerainty. However, Lahore was plundered and many people massacred. Ahmad Shah drafted a peace treaty with Moin-ul-Mulk, officiating the annexation ofPunjab including Multan, Lahore and areas up to Sirhind to the Durrani Empire. The Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah signed the treaty on 3 April 1752, ending Mughal rule in Punjab.[91][92][75] Having conquered Punjab, Ahmad Shah also dispatched his general, Shah Pasand Khan, with 15,000 men toKashmir, which was embroiled in civil war. In support of the deposed governor Mir Muqim, Afghan forces quickly occupiedSrinagar and established complete control in the province.[75][93]
Map of Afghan Turkestan in January 1751,Balkh is still under the rule of theKunduz Khanate
At the start of Ahmad Shah's reign, he had friendly relations with Hajji Bi, the ruler of theMaimana Khanate, who had assumed control over theChahar Wilayat. Coming into conflict against Hazara Bi, the ruler ofQataghan, Hajji Bi lost control overBalkh to the Qataghanids. In 1751, Hajji Bi traveled to Herat with a delegation of amirs, seeking Ahmad Shah's aid to reclaim Balkh. Ahmad Shah accepted the call to arms, forging an alliance with Hajji Bi, and sent thousands of Afghan andQizilbash men under Allah Khan Turkman. Hajji Bi was also bestowed by Ahmad Shah with the titles of governor of Balkh and tax collector.[94][95]
Not much information is given about the campaign against the Qataghanids. However, by the summer of 1752, the forces of the alliance were victorious, and Balkh was restored to the rule of the Maimana Khanate. During the campaign, a commander of one of theAfghan Qizilbash forces fought against Allah Khan, prompting Mizrab Bi, a son of Hazara Bi, to revolt in 1753. Hajji Bi urgently requested aid from Ahmad Shah again, he responded by sending 5,000 men. After being restored to Balkh, Hajji Bi pursued a campaign in Qataghan, and with aid from the Afghans, the revolt was put down. Mizrab Bi was brought to submission, andBadakhshan was subjugated as well.[96][97]
In 1755–1756, Hajji Bi petitioned Ahmad Shah atKabul to be madecommander-in-chief of forces in Balkh. The request was accepted, stripping Allah Khan of his position. However, Hajji Bi became noted for his abuse of power in the position, triggering an investigation by the Afghans, who sent Allah Khan to oversee the affairs of the region. Allah Khan immediately declared the reports of oppression to be true, and was reinstated as commander-in-chief in Balkh. Ahmad Shah also declared a new governor of Balkh, Nawab Khan Alakozai.[98][99]
Believing it was the beginning of the Afghans attempting to assert their own hegemony over all ofAfghan Turkestan, Hajji Bi began plotting with Izbasar, the ruler ofSheberghan. The two began a rebellion that achieved little, ending in a pardon for both Hajji Bi and Izbasar.[100] In 1761, Rahim Bi Manghit, the ruler ofBukhara, invaded Afghan Turkestan, intent on re-establishing Bukharan suzerainty over the region. Izbazar declared his loyalty to the ruler of Bukhara and aided in the invasion. Bukharan forces initially overranAqcha before being defeated by Allah Khan, who built a pyramid with the head of dead Bukharan soldiers. Afghan forces continued to Aqcha, where the Bukharans and Izbasar were defeated again. Aqcha was besieged and another force of 8,000 Bukharans were sent to Aqcha to relieve the siege, only to be defeated by the combined forces of Allah Khan and Hajji Bi.[98][101]
Depiction of Ahmad Shah Durrani alongside his vizier, Shah Wali Khan
Attempts to breach the walls of Aqcha failed, and negotiations began. The Bukharans withdrew across theAmu Darya, while Allah Khan was sent to Sheberghan to bring Izbasar into submission. However, Izbasar opened negotiations with Nawab Khan, who demanded Allah Khan be put to death due to an enmity between the two. Izbasar complied, executing Allah Khan, receiving a pardon from Nawab Khan as a result.[98][101]
In 1768, a rebellion in Qataghan and Badakhshan prompted an invasion from Shah Murad Manghit, the next Bukharan ruler. Ahmad Shah sent 6,000 men under Shah Wali Khan to face the rebels. As a result, Shah Murad crossed the Amu Darya, advancing toQarshi, and threatening to attack Aqcha. In response, Ahmad Shah mobilized an army, affirming his authority inMaimana,Andkhoy, Sheberghan, andBalkh as he advanced. This quickly brought Shah Murad to negotiations, who recognized Afghan control over Balkh, with the amirs of theChahar Wilayat also submitting tribute to the Durranis. To further avoid a battle with the Afghans, Shah Murad surrendered thecloak of Muhammad after Ahmad Shah demanded it. With the cloak, Ahmad Shah established a shrine known as theKirka Sharif in Kandahar, which was built next tohis tomb.[102][103][104]
In 1754, Ahmad Shah began preparing for a second campaign in Khorasan. During this time,Nishapur was besieged by Alam Khan, a former Afsharid viceroy. When Ahmad Shah began his invasion, Alam Khan's army completely dispersed, forcing his withdrawal toSabzevar.[80] Beginning his campaign in May 1754, Ahmad Shah departed from Herat with his army and advanced towardTun. He dispatched Jahan Khan andNasir Khan, the ruler of theKhanate of Kalat, to devastate the countryside. Following this, the Afghan forces marched against the governor ofTabas, Ali Murad Khan, who assembled his own army and met the Afghans in battle. Singh describes the battle that took place as one of the most bloodiest battles in Persian history. Ammunition failed to gain any clear advantage for both sides, forcing both armies to draw swords and began clashing. The battle remained indecisive until Ali Murad Khan was killed, and the remaining Persian army was completely routed.[105]
Coin of Ahmad Shah Durrani, minted in Mashhad, date unknown
With the Persians defeated, Tabas and Tun were conquered between June and July 1754 by the Afghans.[106] Ahmad Shah then led his forces to Mashhad, arriving before the city on 23 July.[78] A long siege protracted until the Afsharids finally submitted to Ahmad Shah on 1 December 1754. On the 4th, Ahmad Shah's name wasread in the sermon, acknowledging his sovereignty over the Afsharids. With their victory, the Durranis annexed the territories ofTorshiz,Bakharz,Jam,Khaf, andTurbat-e Haidari from the Afsharids.[107][78] On 9 May 1755, Shahrokh Shah was officially re-instated as ruler over Mashhad, effectively as a Durrani protectorate.[80] Ahmad Shah then began his march on Nishapur in the spring of 1755, while Shah Pasand Khan was dispatched toward Mazandaran against theQajars.[78][108]
During the siege of Mashhad, the CamesgazakKurd contingent of Alam Khan's forces completely defected to the Afghans, killing Alam Khan after dragging him from Sabzevar, which was conquered as a result.[80][109] On 17 June 1755, the Afghan armies arrived at Nishapur, resulting in Abbas Quli's immediate submission. Abbas Quli sought to be pardoned for giving resistance during Ahmad Shah's first campaign. Not long after, however, Nishapur raised in rebellion due to news of Shah Pasand Khan being defeated by the Qajars. The gates of the city were closed on Ahmad Shah's troops,[108] so the Afghans laid siege for one week.[110] During the siege, Ahmad Shah lacked importantsiege equipment, and he solved this problem by having every mounted soldier carry kilograms ofgunmetals. As the siege began, Ahmad Shah'sArmenian cannon makers melted down the metal the soldiers had carried, forging a large cannon. The first shot of the cannon blasted through the city walls, and caused havoc in the city through houses andbazaars.[85]
The weapon forced the submission of the city elders, and they opened the gates of the city despite Abbas Quli's opposition. The city was then plundered, with the populace of the city spared if they went to the mosques and didn't take anything with them. Afghan forces went to houses and tore down the defenses, razing significant portions of the city.[94][76] Following the victory at Nishapur, Ahmad Shah defeated the Qajars and advanced further by sacking the cities of Tun and Tabas, carrying out massacres in these cities.[94] Abbas Quli was initially captured by Ahmad Shah until he earned his favor. Abbas Quli married one of Ahmad Shah's daughters, while Ahmad Shah married Abbas Quli's sister. With these arrangements, Abbas Quli was allowed to return to Nishapur as governor of the city. He would remain close to Ahmad Shah throughout his life.[111]
Moin-ul-Mulk governed Punjab until his death in November 1753, and was succeeded byMughlani Begum. In March 1756,Mughal vizierImad ul-Mulk imprisoned her and deputedAdina Beg as the governor. Mughlani Begum pleaded Ahmad Shah to lead another invasion, promising him wealth.[112][113] Due to the tyrannies of Imad ul-Mulk, several nobles such asNajib ud-Daula, a chief ofRohilkand, and the new Mughal emperorAlamgir II, pleaded for Ahmad Shah to invade. Ahmad Shah accepted the invitations and began hisfourth invasion in November 1756, leaving Peshawar on the 15th, and crossingAttock on the 26th with an army of 80,000 men.[114][115][116] He reached Lahore on 20 December, seizing the city with little resistance.[117] Ahmad Shah garnered tribute from the city before continuing his march, crossing theSutlej river on 10 January atLudhiana, while theadvance guard under his general, Jahan Khan, seized Sirhind,Karnal, andPanipat.[118][119]
TheMarathas, who had signed a treaty to protect the Mughals from foreign invasions in 1752,[120] assembled a contingent of 3,400 men under Antaji Mankeshwar, battling the Afghans atNarela. The Maratha forces, however, were defeated and forced to withdraw with losses of 100 men.[121][122] Following the defeat of the Marathas, Najib ud-Daula defected to the Afghans, with Imad ul-Mulk surrendering not long after. Jahan Khan continued his advance toLuni and besiegedShahdara on 17 January, with theJama Masjid in Delhi reading Ahmad Shah's name in theKhutbah as asign of sovereignty. The Afghan forces continued advancing on Delhi, arriving before the city on 28 January.[123][124]
Fatehpuri Mosque, where Alamgir received Ahmad Shah before he entered Delhi
Meeting with Alamgir II at theFatehpuri Mosque, Ahmad Shah led a grand entry into Delhi, which was marked with agun salute.[125][126] However, many inhabitants of the city had already fled or hidden, with the streets completely deserted. Many people barricaded themselves in their houses. Ahmad Shah's name was also inserted in the Khutbah for other mosques. Initially the Afghan army was ordered not to sack the city.[117] Alamgir II was placed under house arrest,[127] and houses outside the city of Delhi were ravaged.[126] On the 29th, the bazaars of the city weresacked and Jahan Khan's soldiers extracted tribute fromFeroz Shah Kotla, a large fortress in Delhi. On 30 January, Ahmad Shah minted coins in his name. He also marriedHazrat Begum, a daughter of Alamgir II,[128] while his son, Timur Shah, married another daughter of Alamgir.[129]
Ahmad Shah then ordered allHindus to wear distinctive marks on their head,[130] and forbade non-Muslims from wearing a turban. Extortionate demands were also placed upon the Mughal nobility. The Mughal nobility refused, and Ahmad Shah dispatched his own tax collectors, demanding additional tribute. Those suspected of concealing valuables were subjected to torture, includingfoot whipping. Many thousands died or were crippled as a result, while others resorted to suicide. A tax was also imposed on every household in Delhi.[117]
Imad ul-Mulk was forced to hand over gold and ornaments valued at 10 million rupees, and another 300,000 gold coins.[114][131] WazirIntizam-ud-Daulah was summoned, and many of his assets were confiscated, including over 10 million rupees and 100 of his wives. Unable to produce the required wealth, Intizam admitted his father had buried a fortune, which the Afghans uncovered. The Afghans recovered over 15 million rupees in cash, along with various goods, including 200 golden candles that were the size of a man. The treasure also included diamonds, rubies, pearls, and emeralds.[114][132]
After sacking Delhi, Ahmad Shah campaigned against theJats.Suraj Mal, the ruler of the Jats, initially submitted to Ahmad Shah, but refused to send asylum seekers from the sack of Delhi, resulting in conflict.[133] An Afghan force was sent toFaridabad, seizing the fortress and razing it. However, a Jat raid underJawahar Singh defeated the Afghans, massacring them. In response, Ahmad Shah laid siege toBallabhgarh, while Jahan Khan and Najib ud-Daula were dispatched to loot the surrounding regions. They advanced towardMathura, while Jawahar Singh met them for battle atChaumuhan. The ensuing battle left between 10 and 12,000 dead on both sides combined, with an innumerable amount of men wounded as well.[134]
Jawahar Singh alongside Antaji Mankeshwar reinforced Ballabhgarh. The cannon fire of the Afghans completely broke the defenses of the fortress, forcing Jawahar to withdraw in the night, with Afghan forces seizing the city on 4 March.[117][135] An expedition under Abdus Samad Khan, another of Ahmad Shah's generals, nearly arrested Jawahar Singh during an ambush, but Jawahar ultimately evaded capture.[136]
Portrait of Jawahar Singh
Toward the end of February 1757, the Afghan forces arrived in Mathura and sacked it. The city, despite being inhabited overwhelmingly by non-combatants, mainlypilgrims of the HinduHoli festival, was attacked and the inhabitants were massacred by the Afghans. The Afghan forces slaughtered and defiled the bodies of Hinduascetics by humiliating them with slaughtered cows. Temples of the city were razed, and the images ofidols were destroyed. Jahan Khan furthered the massacre by rewarding a bounty of five rupees for every Hindu head, resulting in the death of thousands of men, women, and children. The Muslims of the city were subjected to the attack as well. Following his massacre at Mathura, Jahan Khan continued his campaign, with the city ofVrindavan being attacked and its inhabitants massacred on 6 March.[137][138][139] The Tarikh-I-Husain Shahi establishes the idol destruction in line withiconoclasm, remarking: "Idols were broken and kicked about like polo-balls by the Islamic heroes."[140]
Ahmad Shah, following Jahan Khan, attacked the city ofGokul on 16 March, which was inhabited byNaga Sadhus, a HinduBhakti sect. The Afghans attacked the city where a battle ensued, resulting in the death of 2,000 men for both sides. Jugal Kishor, a diplomat from theBengal Subah, informed Ahmad Shah there was nothing of value in Gokul. Ahmad Shah ordered a withdrawal, sparing the city from sacking.[141][142][137] On 21 March, Jahan Khan arrived beforeAgra with 15,000 men, besieging the city. Civilians from the town received Jahan Khan and his army, promising 500,000 rupees in tribute. However, after failing to raise the amount, Afghan forces entered the city, plundering it and massacring over 2,000. The Afghan forces attempted to seizeAgra Fort but failed due to the defense of Mirza Saifullah, the garrison commander. He defended the fort with extensive artillery usage, preventing the Afghans from approaching with cannons. Jahan Khan seized 100,000 rupees in tribute, before withdrawing to Ahmad Shah's camp on 24 March after being recalled.[143][144]
Illustration of Najib ud-Daula
Cholera had broken out in the Afghan camp, killing around 150 men per day, caused mainly by the pollutedYamuna River which was overwhelmed with bodies. As a result, Ahmad Shah intended to return to Afghanistan, especially to secure the loot from the campaign. The heat of the Indian summer also convinced him to return. Ahmad Shah started returning to Afghanistan in April 1757, declaring his son Timur Shah governor ofPunjab, while Jahan Khan served as his deputy. Sirhind was annexed from the Mughals, Imad ul-Mulk was re-instated as vizier, and Najib ud-Daula appointed theMir Bakhshi.[126][145][146][147] Alamgir II was allowed to rule Delhi as a vassal of the Durrani Empire.[126]
The Afghan invasion had dire consequences for the Mughal Empire, as most of the Mughal army, along with those from the Bengal Subah, were forcibly deployed against the Afghans. Mere months later, the army of the Bengal Subah, weakened due to the Afghan invasion, were utterly defeated at theBattle of Plassey, leading to the rise ofBritish power in India.[148]
The total loot Ahmad Shah carried back to Afghanistan is disputed. Contemporary writers estimate the Afghans seized 30 to 300 million rupees worth of goods.[149][150] Over 28,000 elephants, camels, and mules carried Ahmad Shah's loot, alongside 80,000 soldiers, who carried whatever they had looted, with many of the Afghan cavalry returning on foot while they loaded the loot unto their horses.[149][150] The massacres committed by the Afghans throughout the campaign made the Yamuna River flow red with blood for two weeks.[122]
Timur Shah was only eleven years old, and thus Punjab was governed mostly byJahan Khan, who was noted as an experienced warrior but incapable administrator. He attacked theSikhs who were celebrating theDiwali festival atAmritsar in1757, and also destroyed and polluted many Sikh shrines, declaringJihad.[151] The tyrannies of Jahan Khan resulted in the Sikhs forging an alliance withAdina Beg, who had fled from Punjab during Ahmad Shah's fourth invasion.[152][150] As a result, Jahan Khan led a campaign against Adina Beg in theJalandhar Doab, pillaging the region. Adina Beg acquiesced to submitting tribute, but ignored summons to the Afghan court in Lahore. On one such occasion of being summoned, Adina Beg refused to trust Jahan Khan and fled to theHill states, where he forged an alliance withVadbhag Singh Sodhi andJassa Singh Ahluwalia, the leader of theDal Khalsa.[152]
Jahan Khan dispatched a force under Murad Khan in response, who met the alliance at thebattle of Mahilpur, where the Afghans were defeated, resulting in the looting of the Jalandhar Doab. More troops from Lahore were sent to quell the alliance but all of them were defeated, allowing the Sikhs to plunder the suburbs of Lahore.[150][153][151]
AMaratha force led byRaghunath Rao arrived at Agra in May 1757 when Ahmad Shah was crossing theIndus River to Afghanistan. The Maratha forces completely seized theGanges Doab, and defeatedNajib ud-Daula at thebattle of Delhi in September 1757. Alamgir II was retained on the throne as a puppet, and Imad ul-Mulk remained as vizier.[154] Adina Beg requested the Marathas to invade Punjab, and Raghunath Rao accepted.[155] The Maratha invasion began in February 1758, advancing and reaching Sirhind in March, which was besieged. Abdus Samad Khan, the Afghan governor of Sirhind, fled the city but was eventually captured, and Sirhind was plundered. The developments at Sirhind alerted Jahan Khan, who raised an army of 2,000 men and scouted far ahead of Lahore, but refused to give battle to the alliance. Upon receiving news of the Marathas approaching Lahore, he began preparing to return to Afghanistan on 19 April.[150][156][157]
Encamping at Shahdara, the Afghans retreated across the Ravi, leaving Lahore in anarchy and free for capture by the alliance.[151] Afghan rearguard contingents were ambushed by the Marathas, pushing Jahan Khan and Timur Shah to speed their progress to Afghanistan. Further close encounters atEminabad saw the Afghans driven to theChenab belowWazirabad, where they were attacked by the Marathas and Sikhs, who took some two hundred Afghan prisoners. Modern scholarship designates this encounter as the end of the Maratha pursuit. Near contemporary sources state the Marathas were able to establish themselves at Attock, and possibly even at Peshawar.[158][159]
Kalat Rebellion (1758—1759)
With the Maratha conquest of Punjab, Nasir Khan, the ruler of the Khanate of Kalat, declared his independence from Ahmad Shah. Attempts to conciliate and have Nasir Khan return to Afghan suzerainty failed, prompting Ahmad Shah to dispatch a force under Shah Wali Khan, which was defeated at Pringuez, forcing their retreat toQuetta.[160][161][150] Informed of the defeat, Ahmad Shah raised his own force and marched againstKalat in the summer of 1758.[162] He met Nasir Khan in battle atMastung, where the Kalat forces were defeated, prompting Nasir Khan's withdrawal to Kalat city, which Ahmad Shah then besieged.[163] The siege of Kalat continued for forty days to no avail, and numerous storming attempts by the Afghans failed.[164][150]
Nasir Khan, beleaguered of having been trapped in his capital, opened peace negotiations with the Afghans, apologizing for his rebellion. Ahmad Shah, having no intentions to annex Kalat or to bestow the province unto another governor, reaffirmed Nasir Khan in his position. A treaty was made, stipulating that Nasir Khan would re-enter and recognize the suzerainty of Ahmad Shah, but he would pay no tribute and furnish troops when called upon for war by the Shah. After the treaty, Ahmad Shah married a cousin of Nasir Khan.[165][162][161] Months later, adervish began a revolt by having an individual named Mir Khush Khan Durrani proclaimed king. This rebellion, however, was crushed with the dervish who instigated the revolt being executed, and Mir Khush Khan being blinded.[166]
Preoccupied with the uprising in Kalat, Ahmad Shah was unable to pursue a campaign against the Marathas, instead dispatching his generals,Jahan Khan and Nur ud-Din Bamizai, who were both defeated. In October 1759, Ahmad Shah began his fifth invasion of India.[167] He had been invited by numerous rulers andreligious leaders across India, includingShah Waliullah Dehlawi, who wrote to Ahmad Shah pleading for him to save the Muslims of India. Hari Ram Gupta considered the letter sent by Shah Waliullah as one of the most important historical documents of the 18th century.[168] Ahmad Shah used this letter to get ajihad declared by religious leaders inKandahar.[169] Further invitations were sent byNajib ud-Daula, who wanted India to become a permanent extension of the Afghan empire.Alamgir II sent fervent requests to Ahmad Shah for aid, affirming his loyalty and informing him of the intentions ofImad ul-Mulk, who wished to assassinate him. Even Hindu rulers such asMadho Singh, the ruler ofAmber, andVijay Singh, the ruler ofMarwar, were discontent with Maratha expansion and sent letters to Ahmad Shah.[170] Ahmad Shah also wished to avenge the defeat of his son Timur Shah, and to reclaim the lost territories ofPunjab.[171]
Ahmad Shah split his forces to attack from two sides. Jahan Khan advanced from Kandahar toKabul, and then through theKhyber Pass with an army of 20,000; while Ahmad Shah led a force of 40,000 through theBolan Pass. He was further reinforced byNasir Khan and other Afghan chiefs, eventually fording theIndus on 25 October 1759.[172] When Ahmad Shah entered thePunjab, Jahan Khan had forced the Maratha forces stationed atAttock to evacuate, pursuing them and battling atRohtas, where theMaratha army was routed, forcing their withdrawal toDelhi.[173][174]
Portrait ofShah Jahan III, who was placed on the Mughal throne after Imad ul-Mulk had Alamgir II assassinated
At this time, Ahmad Shah approachedMultan with his army. The Maratha governor in response fled toLahore, leaving the city to be captured without resistance. With the Afghans converging on Lahore, the Maratha forces withdrew toBatala and then Sirhind,[175] with some Maratha detachments being caught and destroyed. At Lahore, Jahan Khanbattled with the Sikhs. No clear victor emerged, and the Afghans suffered some 2,000 dead, while Jahan Khan was wounded during the battle.[176][177] The approach of Ahmad Shah Durrani caused havoc throughout all ofNorthern India, causing Imad ul-Mulk to have Alamgir II and Intizam-ud-Daulah murdered as a result, placingShah Jahan III on the Mughal throne.[178] Ahmad Shah continued advancing through Punjab and Jahan Khan seized Sirhind on 27 November, with both armies uniting at Sirhind in December 1759.[179][180]
Enraged by the execution of Alamgir II, Ahmad Shah began racing toward Delhi. He reachedAmbala on 20 December and advanced towardsTaraori, leading toa battle against the Marathas led byDattaji Scindia. The advance guard of the Afghan army clashed with the Marathas and was initially routed, initiating a withdrawal. However, Ahmad Shah, ready to support the battle, dispatched 5,000 men under Shah Pasand Khan. The forces of Imad ul-Mulk in the battle completely fled at the sight of Shah Pasand's flag,[181] and the Afghans attacked withmuskets. Further detachments of the Afghan army sent by Ahmad Shah brought the battle to an end, with the Maratha force completely surrounded and destroyed.[182][183][184]
Dattaji Scindia, the Maratha commander in Northern India
Following the battle, Ahmad Shah forded the Yamuna and united with the forces of Najib ud-Daula and otherRohilla leaders atSaharanpur. The combined armies marched toward Delhi, encamping at Luni, around 10 km (6.2 mi) from theRed Fort in Delhi on the other side of the Yamuna. Dattaji Scindia returned toKunjpura following his defeat at Taraori, and prepared to defend Delhi from the Afghan army. He first sent Imad ul-Mulk to set up the defenses of the city. However, Imad ul-Mulk deserted the Marathas and fled toSuraj Mal.[182][183][184]
Dattaji then advanced toSonipat, attempting to track Ahmad Shah's movements, which was made difficult as the Afghans kept their movements confidential by killing every Indian found outside their houses. Dattaji established camp atBarari on 4 January 1760. On 9 January, Najib ud-Daula began crossing the Yamuna with Ahmad Shah following him, leading to thebattle of Barari Ghat. The Maratha forces opposed the advance of the Afghans across the river but were overpowered bymusketeers, with much of the Maratha army only armed with spears and swords. Dattaji, attempting to enter the fray himself, was shot either in the eye,[185] or the ribs,[186] causing his death. Further Maratha reinforcements were useless against the Afghan musket fire, forcing the Marathas to withdraw from the field with a thousand dead, and the Afghans victorious.[187][188][189][190]
Having defeated the Marathas at Barari Ghat, Ahmad Shah entered Delhi, with his men plundering the city. Much of the population of the city had already fled, and he tookShah Jahan III under his protection instead of claiming theMughal throne for himself. Ahmad Shah also deputed Yaqub Ali Khan as governor of the city, who was a nephew of hisvizier, Shah Wali Khan, before leaving to march against Suraj Mal.[191][192] Leaving Delhi on 27 January, Ahmad Shah besiegedDeeg on 7 February, although not committing to the siege seriously.[193] During the siege, he sent a detachment under Jahan Khan which routed a Maratha army on 11 February atRewari. Ahmad Shah then pursued a Maratha force led byMalhar Rao Holkar stationed atNarnaul. After reaching Rewari, Ahmad Shah was evaded by Holkar, and the Maratha force crossed the Yamuna river on 26—27 February, entering Najib ud-Daula's territories. On 28 February, Holkar advanced toSikandrabad, awaiting news of the Afghan position. On 1 March 1760, Ahmad Shah dispatched a force of 15,000 under Jahan Khan, Shah Pasand Khan, and Qalandar Khan to halt the Maratha army. The Marathas were caught on 4 March and completely routed at thebattle of Sikandarabad,[194][195][187] with many Maratha officers slain. Holkar himself fled for his life to Agra, and then toBharatpur to meet Suraj Mal.[196][197]
With another victory over the Marathas, Ahmad Shah proceeded toAligarh, which belonged to the Jats, and besieged it. Unable to receive any reinforcements, the fort surrendered to the Afghans. At Aligarh, Najib ud-Daula advised Ahmad Shah to rest and wait out for the summer and monsoon seasons to pass, especially as the summer had been so catastrophic for the Afghans during the fourth invasion of India.[198] Najib ud-Daula then expelled the Marathas fromShikohabad,Phaphund, andBithoor.[199][200]
Shuja-ud-Daula, a vital Durrani ally during Ahmad Shah's fifth invasion
As the Afghans settled in, they resorted to diplomacy to strengthen their position.Ahmad Khan Bangash, although an initial Maratha ally, was appealed to by Shah Wali Khan as an Afghan brother. Ahmad Khan thus allied with the Durranis and arrived at their camp on 13 April 1760.[201] The Afghans also successfully negotiated with the ruler ofOudh,Shuja ud-Daula, who allied with the Durrani camp in July 1760. Ahmad Shah also had friendly relations with theRajputs, even declaring to them his intention to invade theDeccan in the winter.[202] At this time, the Marathas sent reinforcements underSadashivrao Bhau, a cousin of thePeshwa,Balaji Baji Rao. The reinforcements also includedVishwasrao, the heir of the Maratha Confederacy, and nearly all significant Maratha commanders. Sadashivrao was described as an ignorant commander with a short temper and pride, ignoring the advice of more senior commanders who had experience in Northern India, and failing to anticipate certain outcomes.[203]
The Maratha force reachedAgra on 14 July. Sadashivrao, finding the Yamuna river overflowing, settled on advancing to Delhi. The Marathas advanced from Mathura and reached Delhi on 23 July, whereit was stormed. The city fell to the Marathas, but the Red Fort held out. On 29 July, negotiations for the garrison's withdrawal culminated. Yaqub Ali Khan was allowed to leave the city to Ahmad Shah's camp with his men unharmed, and Maratha forces occupied the Red Fort on 1 August.[204][205][206] The Marathas began facing difficulties on 4 August, when Suraj Mal and Imad ul-Mulk defected from the Marathas and returned to their posts. Furthermore, the Maratha army lacked food and feed for their horses. The situation became so difficult that Sadashivrao wrote there was no money to pay for food and the men of the army and the horses were fasting.[207] Peace negotiations between Ahmad Shah and the Marathas also failed, with both parties seeking their own extensive demands.[208]
By the end of September 1760, the Maratha camp was overridden with starvation. Ahmad Shah, however, was anxious to return to Afghanistan since his settling at Aligarh, as he never intended to form an Afghan empire based in India. The Marathas left Delhi on 10 October, and Ahmad Shah responded by having his army arrayed across the Yamuna. Sadashivrao, intending to seize Kunjpura, which had vast supplies, arrived before the city on 16 October. Thebattle of Kunjpura ensued which saw the Marathas victorious and the Afghan governor at Kunjpura,Najabat Khan, and Abdus Samad Khan killed.[209][210] Ahmad Shah was unable to help the defenders of Delhi and Kunjpura as he was stuck on the other side of the Yamuna.[211]
Afghan and Maratha camps detailed by a plan of the third battle of Panipat
Ahmad Shah, infuriated at the fall of Kunjpura, began preparing for a crossing over the flooded and practically unfordable Yamuna river atBaghpat.[212] The Afghan forces crossed between 25 and 26 October, massacring a Maratha detachment near Sonipat. Anotherbattle atSamalkha saw the Marathas forced back to their camp at Panipat.[213][214] On 30 October, Ahmad Shah reached Sambhalka, and arrayed before the Marathas on 1 November.[215] Najib ud-Daula was dispatched by Ahmad Shah to prevent Maratha supplies flowing in from Delhi, defeating the forces of Naro Shankar, the Maratha governor of Delhi. Sadashivrao in response sentGovind Pant Bundela to invade Rohilla territories and cut off Afghan supplies. Marching with 12,000 horsemen, the Maratha detachment advanced up toMeerut beforebeing attacked by an Afghan contingent of 14,000 dispatched by Ahmad Shah on 17 December under Atai Khan.[216] Govind Pant was killed and the Maratha force was routed, with large amounts of supplies being seized by the Afghans.[217][218]
The Marathas were cut off from all supplies as a result, and a last desperate attempt for peace was sent by Sadashivrao, even agreeing on any term Ahmad Shah deemed fit. Najib ud-Daula shut down the idea and Ahmad Shah rejected peace.[219] As starvation gripped the Maratha camp, Sadashivrao concluded with his cabinet of war on 13 January to attack the Afghans. On 14 January, the Maratha forces assembled and began marching on the Afghan camp.[220][221] The numbers of the battle vary by source. Historian JL Mehta states the Afghans had 79,800 men, while the mustered Marathas 85,000. The Afghans had a gradual flow of manpower into the army while the Marathas did not, ensuring the Marathas were far outnumbered during the battle.[222]
Thethird battle of Panipat ensued andIbrahim Khan Gardi unleashed his cannons on the Afghans. However, the troops operating the cannons were completely inexperienced and their artillery fire merely flew overhead the Afghan army. Ibrahim Khan, realizing his failure in this regard, held his cannon fire and instead engaged with a detachment of his troops against the Rohilla units of Ahmad Shah's army. Other Maratha officers attempted to engage as well with Ibrahim Khan's forces. The Rohillas responded with musket fire and the Marathas were beaten back with heavy casualties. Ibrahim Khan's forces were devastated by Rohilla cavalry, resulting in the losses of over six battalions and Ibrahim Khan himself being wounded, with the Maratha left wing failing.[223][224][225]
Painting of a wounded Sadashivrao being carried away on horseback during the Third battle of Panipat
Ahmad Shah Durrani depicted on horseback during the Third battle of Panipat
Sadashivrao led an attack on the Afghan centre simultaneously, with both sides having equal numbers. Despite the Rohilla victory on the left wing, the Afghan centre was exposed, and the Marathas breached over three lines in the Afghan centre, with around 3,000 Afghans dead or wounded. At a pivotal moment, Ahmad Shah sent his reinforcements of 4,000Qizilbash to the right wing and 10,000 men to the Afghan centre. Ahmad Shah also dispatched hiszamburaks, inflicting heavy casualties on the Marathas. A counter-attack was launched by the Afghans across all fronts.[226][227]
Vishwasrao was then killed by a bullet, with news of his death spreading through the Maratha camp and leading to the desertion of over 2,000 Afghans and Rohillas serving the Marathas. The Maratha left wing was thus dismantled and routed. As the Rohillas launched their own attack,Malhar Rao Holkar fled the battle. The Afghan left wing caved in on the Maratha centre, while the Maratha right wing was completely annihilated by Najib ud-Daula. Ahmad Shah then advanced to the centre to command the final stage of the battle.[228][229]
Sadashivrao attempted to assault the Afghan centre twice but was pushed back with heavy losses. Ahmad Shah then ordered 8,000 reinforcements from his own tribe to attack, and Sadashivrao was killed during the fray. The death of Sadashivrao saw all Maratha resistance dissipate and the Maratha centre was slaughtered. The Marathas who tried to escape the battlefield were chased.[230][221] A minimum of 75,000 Marathas are estimated to have been killed,[231] the maximum number being 100,000.[232][233] This included over 30,000 Marathas perishing in battle, another 10,000 being killed while retreating, and another 10,000 reported missing. After the battle, 50,000 Maratha camp followers were massacred or sold intoslavery.[234]
Coin of Ahmad Shah Durrani, struck in Delhi
The loss at Panipat resulted in the end of Maratha influence in Northern India. The day after the battle, Ahmad Shah entered the city of Panipat wearing jewels such as theKoh-i-Noor. The Afghan troops massacred any male over the age of fourteen and enslaved the woman and children of the city.[235] Ahmad Shah made a pilgrimage to the tomb ofBu Ali Shah Qalandar, and then left Panipat on 19 July to enter Delhi. He formally entered the Red Fort on 29 January, with thekhutbah being read in his name and coins being struck. After resting for two months, Ahmad Shah's troops demanded to return to Afghanistan, as much of them had been unpaid for over a year and a half. As a result, after plundering Delhi, he began returning to Afghanistan on 20—22 March.[236][237][238]
Ahmad Shah settled the affairs of India by placingShah Alam II on the Mughal throne with Najib ud-Daula as hisBakhshi, andJawan Bakht being recognized as the heir to Shah Alam. Delhi was given to Najib ud-Daula and Jawan Bakht to rule together, while Imad ul-Mulk was permitted to serve as vizier again.[239] No peace deal was made with the Marathas as Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao died soon after the loss at Panipat.[240][241] While returning to Afghanistan, the Afghan army was attacked by the Sikhs underJassa Singh Ahluwalia, who carried away stragglers. The Sikhs attacked the Afghan flanks at night but maintained distance to avoid the Afghan artillery and cavalry, and avoidedpitched battle. A surprise attack on theBeas river by the Sikhs freed many Maratha prisoners.[242] In response, Ahmad Shah established defenses around his camp every night, and at Lahore, he sent numerous expeditions against the Sikhs that captured and killed many. He completed his return to Afghanistan by May 1761.[238][243]
Rebellions in Afghanistan (1760—1762)
While Ahmad Shah campaigned, numerous incidents had occurred throughoutAfghanistan. When theMarathas occupiedDelhi, an uprising began under Hajji Jamal Khan Zargarani based on reports of Ahmad Shah's death, and he proclaimed himself king of Afghanistan. AtKandahar he struck coins in his name. However, as news of Ahmad Shah's victories trickled in from India, he renounced his claim and fled for his life to a remote area of the country.[244][166] Another revolt had begun under Darwish Ali Khan Hazara, who avoided Shah Pasand's forces, before eventually being allowed to return to Herat between 1761 and 1762.[245] In early 1761, Abd al-Khaliq Khan, Dilawar Khan Ishaqzai and Zal Beg Popalzai, who were members of Ahmad Shah's tribal council, rebelled. They first went to the fortress ofGrishk, falsely claiming Ahmad Shah had been defeated in India, and declared Abd al-Khaliq as king. The combined forces from Griskh marched to Kandahar, making Ahmad Shah's son Sulaiman Mirza abandon the capital.[246][247]
Shah Pasand Khan was dispatched to crush the revolt, and he arrived before the city, clarifying Ahmad Shah was alive. The rebellion's support thus dissipated, and the leaders of the rebellion went to Shah Pasand's camp for mercy. Insignificant rebels were spared, while Zal Beg Popalzai and other significant leaders were executed. Dilawar Khan fled toHerat whereTimur Shah Durrani allowed him to become the commander of his personal bodyguard, and Abd al-Khaliq was imprisoned.[246][248]
As Ahmad Shah retired to Afghanistan from his fifth invasion of India, theSikhs defeated many of his governors, primarily during a decisive battle atGujranwala which led to thefall of Lahore in November 1761.[249][250] Enraged at the defeat of his deputies, Ahmad Shah prepared for his sixth invasion of India, initiating it in February 1762.[167][251] With alight cavalry force, he dashed through Punjab in a rapid march, crossing over 200 kilometers and fording two rivers in 36 hours.[252] News of this reached the Sikhs who were engaged in a siege atJandiala. The Sikhs raised the siege and withdrew, until their position was compromised by the Afghan governor ofMalerkotla.[253] Ahmad Shah led his forces along with those ofZain Khan Sirhindi, catching the Sikhs at the village ofKup. The Sikhs under Jassa Singh andCharat Singh were completely defeated and massacred in an event known as theVadda Ghalughara.[254][255] Ahmad Shah ordered that nobody wearing Indian clothes was to be left alive, and thus camp followers including women and children were killed.[250] After the battle of Kup, Ahmad Shah invadedPatiala State, ruled byAla Singh. Ahmad Shah stormed the fortress ofBarnala, before Ala Singh produced himself before the Shah, submitting tribute. Ahmad Shah then returned to Lahore on 3 March after camping at Sirhind.[256][257]
Depiction of theGolden Temple. Afghan forces razed it and polluted the lake
At Lahore, he assembled his forces and attackedAmritsar, arriving at the city on 10 April, a day before theVaisakhi festival. The city was sacked and a massacre ensued where theGolden Temple was razed, blown with gunpowder and the blood of men and cows polluted the lake surrounding it.[258][259] At this time, a piece ofshrapnel hit Ahmad Shah on the nose, causing an open wound that would plague him for the rest of his life.[250][260] Ahmad Shah then rested at Lahore, intending to settle the affairs of India. He sent an expedition towardKashmir which haddeclared its independence underSukh Jiwan Mal, and Kashmir was re-conquered.[261][262] Peace negotiations began with the Marathas, while Ahmad Shah called upon Indian princes to recognizeShah Alam II as the Mughal emperor.[263]
Between April–May 1762, Zain Khan was defeated by the Sikhs atHarnaulgarh. During the summer, Ahmad Shah moved his camp toKalanaur. The Sikhs capitalized off of this, with Jassa Singh andTara Singh invading theJalandhar Doab, while Charat Singh plundered the regions north of Lahore.[264][265] In October 1762, Ahmad Shah possibly fought a battle atAmritsar, an event not accepted by all historians.[266] The possible battle was fought under a complete solar eclipse that raged until the night, where Ahmad Shah withdrew to Lahore before returning to see the Sikhs had also withdrawn.[267] Afterward, Ahmad Shah appointed a Hindu, Kabuli Mal, as the Durrani governor of Punjab, believing it would bring stability. Ahmad Shah began withdrawing to Afghanistan on 12 December after news of an uprising in Kandahar arrived.[268] While returning, herouted a Sikh army on the banks of theRavi river.[269] His health was significantly affected during the invasion as a result of the summer heat, further worsened by his wounded nose.[270]
Map of the route the Afghan embassy undertook to the Qing dynasty in 1763
Fazil Biy, the ruler ofKhujand, and other Kyrgyz chieftains pleaded to Ahmad Shah to aid them againstQing expansionism. Ahmad Shah accepted the call for aid, and began preparing by occupying the regions betweenTashkent andKokand in 1763,[271][272] though later withdrawing as it became clear the Qing did not intend to invade.[273]
In 1763, Ahmad Shah had dispatched an embassy to the Qing. His aims are unknown, however, an embassy allowed Ahmad Shah to establish himself as an emperor. The letter he sent to the Qing emperorQianlong is missing, but based on the Qing reply, the letter was likely dedicated to his conquests, victory at Panipat, and Qing expansion. The letter positioned Ahmad Shah's expansions as bringing order and stability to areas overrun with rebels and lawlessness, referring to hiscampaigns in Iran and India. The battle of Panipat was strongly detailed in the letter, in what was likely a fath-nama, meaning a victory letter or declaration to celebrate a victory. The Qing emperor ignored the implied threat.[274]
In the second part of the letter, Qianlong appeared much more defensive, justifying theQing conquest of the Dzungars and theAltishahr Khojas. He accused them of causing devastation and laying false accusations against him. A report also suggests Ahmad Shah considered the territories the Qing claimed actually belonged to the Muslims. In reality, Ahmad Shah possibly wanted to establish spheres of influence, which was similarly done with theOttomans who had dividedIran between them, and atreaty with Bukhara that had established theAmu Darya as the border.[275]
Why has your Khan dispatched you? Has your Khan not sent you to appear at an audience with the brilliance of our Great Lord? Our Great Lord is the ruler who has united All under Heaven. Besides you Afghans, as soon as people from the West, Russia, even the former Zunghars came, all of them promptly prostrated themselves before the Great Lord. He is like Heaven; do you not bow before Heaven?[276]
A Qing grand councillor, remarking at the Afghan envoy's refusal to Kowtow
When the Afghan embassy arrived in Beijing, the chief envoy, Khwaja Mirhan, refused tokowtow before the Qing emperor. The Qing officials, in shock, demanded he kowtow, to which Mirhan eventually acquiesced. This incident damaged the Qing-Afghan relations and Qianlong cut ties with the Afghans following this. No immediate consequence occurred, and the envoy was shown favor.[277] Mirhan's refusal likely came out of religious reasons, but the Qing received it as Ahmad Shah declaring himself equal to Qianlong. From Qianlong's view, he saw the Afghans as a significant power and attempted to impress the envoy and Ahmad Shah by the Qing empire. This was especially done due to the recent conquest of Altishahr and concerns over stability in the region.[278]
Ahmad Shah's gifts to the Qing emperor includedfour horses, which were painted by the Qing court painterGiuseppe Castiglione. Nonetheless, by the time of the envoy's return journey to Afghanistan, Qianlong made preparations to secure Qing territories.[279] In 1759, as the revolt of the Altishahr Khojas crumbled, two descendants of the Afaqi Sufi lineage crossed into Badakhshan after being pursued by Qing forces. Fude, the Qing general of the expedition, demanded Sultan Shah, the ruler of Badakhshan, arrest the brothers. Sultan Shah accepted, likely wishing to receive Qing military aid against theDurrani Empire. However, after the Afaqi descendants had resided in Badakhshan for months and Sultan Shah initially refused to hand them over, possibly intending to send them toBukhara, the Qing grew wary. Qianlong threatened an invasion, which did not come about as one of the descendant's remains were sent toYarkand.[280]
The death of the Afaqi brothers spurned relations with the Afghans, causing Sultan Shah to plead to the Qing, claiming Ahmad Shah intended to exact revenge for their deaths. No immediate Afghan invasion occurred. The Qing had faced numerous frustrations with their tributaries inCentral Asia, alongside a major insurrection inUch-Turfan that required tremendous effort to defeat. As a result, Qianlong adopted a policy of strict non-interference, realizing Qing troops in Altishahr were significantly stretched and spread thin. The Afghans, however, seen as a threat, would show the weakness of Qing control in the region.[281]
In August 1768, Qianlong was informed of the Afghan invasion of Badakhshan led by Shah Wali Khan in May, with Afghan forces seizing Sultan Shah's capitalFayzabad. A Qing agent, Yunggui, proposed that the Qing should interfere in the conflict. Qianlong, however, affirmed military intervention would be irrational, and strictly forbade any military interference. Historians see this as surprising, as the invasion by the Afghans threatened the Qing Empire itself.[282]
Qing sources affirm the Afghans had established Sarimsaq, a child of the Afaqi's who had escaped to Badakhshan, inKunduz. Qianlong was distraught, as another possible revolt could revolve around Sarimsaq, especially after reports of Muslim travelers and funds sent to Sarimsaq arrived. This news still did not convince Qianlong to act, and he refused to send any negative response to Ahmad Shah at all. During this time, Sultan Shah had defeated the Afghan governor and reoccupied his capital. Fearing another Afghan invasion, he sent desperate letters to the Qing in winter 1768 to ask for help, claiming Ahmad Shah would invade next year. Qianlong rebutted, blaming Sultan Shah for provoking the conflict with the Afghans and affirmed he would only fight the Afghans if they actually invaded Qing territory. Sultan Shah wrote a letter toEmin Khoja in response in August 1769, expecting aid as he was a vassal, only to find himself abandoned. In December 1769, Sultan Shah wrote another letter accusing Qianlong of failing to uphold his duties. Qianlong rebuked him, and stated the Qing would not aid him under any circumstances.[283]
We have long known that you have previously presented gifts to the Afghans. That you now have no more options but to evade the issue just shows that you are paying tribute to the Afghans! […] If you cannot protect your own lands, and wish to submit to the Afghans, then suit yourself! […] If you wish to rely on our armies to serve your enmities and to subjugate your neighboring tribes, then we will under no circumstances provide you with our troops.[284]
Qianlong's reply to Sultan Shah's plea for aid against Ahmad Shah
Qianlong had initially considered the Afghanstributaries, but after the former incident, he no longer sought the prospect of any form of Durrani submission. His reply to Sultan Shah effectively saw the Qing recognize the Afghans as a rival power to them, with Qianlong recognizing the Afghans could not be treated like tributaries. Rather than aiding the ruler of Badakhshan as his initial policy implicated him to, Qianlong instead justified the Afghan invasion, prompted by overextended armies, the distance, and stability. Instead, Qianlong gambled on the difficult terrain between the Afghan and Qing realms for safety.[285] Within the same year, Ahmad Shah had occupied Badakhshan and Sultan Shah was executed.[286]
Seventh invasion of India (1764–1765)
After Ahmad Shah returned to Afghanistan following hissixth invasion, the Sikhs reoccupied Lahore, chasing off the Shah's governor and sackingKasur. The Sikhs followed up the victory by overrunning the Jalandhar Doab, while inflicting a crushing defeat on Jahan Khan at Sialkot in November 1763. The Sikhs continued their attacks, sacking the cities of Malerkotla andMorinda, and defeating another Afghan army at Sirhind, killing Zain Khan Sirhindi. The victories subsequently allowed the Sikhs to seize Rohtas and even plunder Multan, advancing up to theDerajat by the end of their campaigns.[287][288][268]
Ahmad Shah initially tried to face this threat, fording theIndus River with 40,000 men in early 1764. However, the Sikhs assembled 100,000 men in response and attacked Ahmad Shah as he crossed the Chenab, routing him, where he withdrew back toKandahar.[289][290] Undiminished, Ahmad Shah declared a jihad, inviting his vassalNasir Khan to march with him on Punjab.[268] In October 1764,[167] Ahmad Shah reached Eminabad in December with 18,000 men, further reinforced by Nasir Khan, who brought with him 12,000 men. The combined armies marched to Lahore, and a Sikh ambush on a scouting party near the city resulted in both sides withdrawing.[291][292]
Ahmad Shah then proceeded with his army to Amritsar and sacked the city a third time before returning to Lahore.[268] Frustrated he could not fight the Sikhs in apitched battle, Ahmad Shah led his forces through the Jalandhar Doab and razed the Sikh homes and farms there, accumulating supplies for his army. The Afghans advanced through Jandiala, Batala, andDina Nagar, fighting numerous engagements with the Sikhs which usually ended unfavorably or required heavy effort to repel. The entire countryside was destroyed by the Afghan advances.[293][294]
After another battle in the Jalandhar Doab where the Sikhs were driven off, the Afghans crossed the Sutlej and repelled a Sikh army atRupar Ghat from raiding their baggage train. After arriving atKunjpura in late February 1765, Ahmad Shah's generals pleaded with him to return to Afghanistan, fearing the heat of thesummer and the rain ofmonsoon seasons, instead suggesting they return the following winter.[295][296]
Painting of Ala Singh, whom Ahmad Shah had conferred the governorship of Sirhind
While returning to Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah conferred Sirhind on Ala Singh, a Sikh who had submitted to him. Ala Singh submitted the same tribute as other governors, paying a subsidy of 350,000 rupees annually. It was also believed the appointment would divide the Sikhs. This would later prove successful, as Ala Singh repelled an attack by theDal Khalsa underHari Singh Dhillon and also killed him.[297]
After crossing the Sutlej, the Afghan army was set upon by the Sikhs, engaging in fierce fighting, both sides withdraw when nightfall came. On the second day a Sikh force attempted to harass the Afghan rear, but was repelled and the Sikhs suffered heavy casualties. Skirmishes on the third day saw the Sikhs continuehit-and-run tactics atNurmahal, and a battle on the fourth day nearKapurthala saw the Afghans receive heavy casualties. A final battle on the seventh day took place on theBeas, where the Sikhs were routed and pursued.[298]
Ahmad Shah completed his return to Afghanistan by the end of March, but suffered heavy casualties crossing theChenab after reaching an incorrect area to ford the river, with thousands of men drowned or swept away by the current.[148][299] Lee claims the Afghans suffered more casualties in the crossing than all of Ahmad Shah's battles with the Sikhs.[148]
Eighth invasion of India (1766–1767)
In March 1765, the Sikhs had reoccupied Lahore and ousted the Shah's governor. As a result, Ahmad Shah began preparing for an eighth invasion of India. He was also possibly invited by thevakil ofMir Qasim, the former ruler ofBengal until he was deposed by the British. Shah Wali Khan, however, wrote toLord Clive and affirmed the invasion was focused on the Sikhs.[300][301]
In November 1766, Ahmad Shah launched his invasion.[302] He forded the Indus River at Attock in December, and defeated a Sikh army under Ballam Singh at Behgy, nearRohtas. The Afghans continued their advance, encamping atGujrat on 14 December, receiving many Muslim rulers in the region. Ahmad Shah then defeated another attempt by the Sikhs to oppose him on the other side of theJhelum River, continuing his advance by reachingGhuinke, defeating a Sikh contingent in a fort there, and then reaching Eminabad.[303][304]
The Shah reached Lahore on 22 December, finding the Sikhs had deserted the city. The Afghans occupied the city, while Ahmad Shah dispatched a contingent of 1,500 to Sirhind. The Sikhs under Charat Singh assembled a force of 20,000 near Lahore, and Ahmad Shah assembled his own host of 50,000 in response. He dispatched Jahan Khan to Amritsar, forcing the Sikhs to withdraw. Ahmad Shah then encamped atFatahabad on 28 December, south-east of Amritsar.[305]
The Sikhs then raided the Shah's baggage train at Lahore, before retreating as Ahmad Shah approached on 1 January 1767. Ahmad Shah offered peace to the Sikhs, intending to march onNorthern India and offering to divide lands for them, lest they fight him in the field. The Sikhs rejected all offers, and defeated Jahan Khan at Amritsar on 17 January. Ahmad Shah quickly came to his aid and attacked the Sikhs, forcing them to flee and destroying Amritsar. The Afghan baggage train was attacked during this time, but Nasir Khan routed and pursued the Sikh army.[306][307]
Nobody should go ahead and none should move from his place. "..." Wait, the devilish foe will itself come to you. Do not step outside your ranks but stick to your place like theCaucasus mountains. When you find that the Dogs have approached you, fall on their heads. I have advised all theGhazis similarly. When you move forward all of you should remain closely united. None should go ahead and nobody should lag behind, and no person should keep away from the main body. All should fall on the enemy in a body simultaneously.[308]
Ahmad Shah remarking toNasir Khan prior to a battle with the Sikhs
Ahmad Shah then crossed theBeas River and received many sardars includingNajib ud-Daula, as well as the vakils of Mir Qasim, theJats, andJaipur.[309] When his invasion began, Ahmad Shah was surprised and infuriated when the chiefs of India who had sworn allegiance to him did not come to offer homage to him personally. The British also had Emperor Shah Alam and Vizier Shuja ud-Daula refrain from sending aid to the Shah, fearing advances further east of Delhi. The British urged the Marathas, Rohillas, and Jats to form a coalition against Ahmad Shah, assuring British aid. Ahmad Shah, however, was seen as invincible in India following the victory at Panipat, with many chiefs being terrified of him.[310]
Ahmad Shah continued his advance to Nurmahal, before reachingMachhiwara, where the Sikhs opposed his advance and harassed him. He attempted to pursue the Sikhs to no avail, while they inflicted a severe defeat on Nasir Khan. The Afghans continued and arrived at Ismailabad, south ofAmbala, on 18 March. From there, Ahmad Shah declared his intention to march on Delhi, but Najib ud-Daula opposed this, saying the countryside would flee upon his arrival. With the Sikhs also harassing the rear of his army, Ahmad Shah chose to withdraw and focus on the Sikhs.[311]
After withdrawing to Sirhind, Ahmad Shah organized numerous campaigns against the Sikhs within a month, and a large Sikh army atMani Majra was defeated with many captured. The Sikh holy cities ofKiratpur andAnandpur were also sacked. During this time, Sikh forces began raiding Najib ud-Daula's domains, even storming Meerut on 14 May. Ahmad Shah dispatched Jahan Khan, who traveled around 300 km (190 mi) in three days by forced marches and defeated the Sikhs at Meerut, before returning.[312][313] As the summer heat became unbearable and the monsoon season was nearing, Ahmad Shah withdrew by quick marches through Lahore back to Afghanistan. As he withdrew, Lahore was quickly reoccupied by the Sikhs.[314][315]
Ninth invasion of India (1768–1769)
In late 1768, Ahmad Shah attempted a ninth invasion of India.[302] His forces advanced as far as the Jhelum River, but the Sikhs fell back and attacked him from all directions. No loot could be garnered, and internal disputes rose within the Afghan army, forcing a complete withdrawal. As he withdrew between Peshawar and Kabul, the division in his army grew greater and his camp was plundered, with many killed as a result.[316] This was the final invasion of India by Ahmad Shah, excluding three later attempts.[317]
Tenth, eleventh, and attempted twelfth invasions of India (1769–1771)
Between late 1769 and autumn 1771, Ahmad Shah attempted three more invasions of India. In December 1769, he advanced toward Peshawar but was unsure on how to reach Delhi, withdrawing back to Kandahar. In June 1770, Ahmad Shah again advanced to Peshawar, planning an invasion of India. However, undetermined to fight the Sikhs, he again withdrew. In August 1771, Ahmad Shah planned an invasion of India, with strong rumors circulating of Ahmad Shah attacking in the winter. This was unfounded, and historianRobert Barker states Ahmad Shah would not cross the Indus due to opposition by the Sikhs.[318]
Upon hearing of Afghan difficulties in Punjab, Nasrullah Mirza, son of theAfsharid rulerShahrokh Shah, began preparing to declare independence. He first attempted to secure aid fromKarim Khan Zand to no avail, before receiving support from the Kurds and raising an army inChenaran. Ahmad Shah began marching from Herat to Khorasan between 1769 and 1770, occupyingTorbat-e Jam andLangar. Nasrullah immediately rushed back to Mashhad, while Ahmad Shah arrived and besieged the city.[319][320]
Nasrullah dispatchedNader Mirza Afshar to try and seek aid, which he did receive from the chief of Tabas, Ali Mardan Khan. The siege at Mashhad persisted, andsortie attempts against the Afghans were made. Reinforcements under Nadee Mirza and Ali Mardan began arriving, and Ahmad Shah dispatched his general, Rasul Khan to battle against them. The Afghan contingent was repelled atGonabad. Ahmad Shah sent a second army under Jahan Khan and Nasir Khan, which defeated the Persians, slaying Ali Mardan Khan and pursuing Nader Mirza as far asSoltanabad.[321]
Not wishing to fire upon the city as it contained theImam Reza shrine, negotiations were opened and successfully saw Shahrokh submit again to Afghan suzerainty. Shahrokh also had his daughter, Gauhar-Shad, married toTimur Shah Durrani, with the marriage completed in the Afghan camp. Despite the surrender of Shahrokh and Nasrullah, Ahmad Shah had no intention of directly annexing Khorasan, and instead left Shahrokh to rule under Afghan suzerainty, who also furnished troops for the Afghan army.[320] To ensure loyalty, one of Shahrokh's sons, Yazdan Bakhsh, was taken as hostage. Ahmad Shah began marching back to Kandahar on 9 June, ending his final military campaign.[322]
Due to Ahmad Shah's relentless military campaigning, his health took a serious toll. Numerous reasons are attributed to the death of Ahmad Shah, including a malignant wound on his nose, a form of facial cancer,[320] or possibly a nose injury from blowing up theGolden Temple.[323] The wound aggravated despite all attempts to cure it, and by summer 1772, Ahmad Shah had to be spoonfed and he could not verbally communicate. He retired to a palace inMaruf, east of Kandahar,[324] eventually dying either on 16 or 23 October 1772.[325] He was buried in Kandahar, where amausoleum was later built by his son,Timur Shah Durrani in 1777.[320] It is adjacent to theKirka Sharif, brought to Afghanistan during Ahmad Shah'scampaign against Bukhara in 1768.[326]
Children and succession
Hari Ram Gupta stated that Ahmad Shah had four sons, Sulaiman,Timur, Parwez, and Sikander.[327] However, Noelle mentions another son, who was the youngest, Sanjar Mirza.[78]
Before his death, Ahmad Shah chose his younger son, Timur Shah Durrani, to succeed him, passing over his eldest son, Sulaiman Mirza. The announcement led to an internal conflict between factions loyal to Sulaiman and Timur. Ahmad Shah dismissed the faction of Sulaiman, proclaiming Timur far more capable than Sulaiman. However, Timur was left as governor atHerat, allowing the faction of Sulaiman to grow their influence. Upon Ahmad Shah's death, the faction of Sulaiman refused the throne to Timur, and gave it to Sulaiman, triggering a short civil war. Timur emerged victorious without battle, as support for Sulaiman had dissipated, and he fled to India.[328] Later during the reign of Timur, his brother Sikander would become the main focus of a conspiracy to succeed to the Durrani throne after a plot on Timur's life that nearly succeeded inPeshawar.[329][330]
Legacy
Generalship & military campaigns
Historians widely regard Ahmad Shah as an excellent military leader andtactician,[331][332] and he is compared to military leaders such asMarlborough,[333]Mahmud of Ghazni,Babur, andNader Shah.[45] Throughout all his military campaigns, he had rarely ever lost a battle.[334] Historian Kaushik Roy remarks that Ahmad Shah was one of the greatest generals of eighteenth century Asia.[335]Hari Ram Gupta shares a similar notion, referring to Ahmad Shah as the "greatest general of Asia of his time", as well as one of the greatest conquerors in Asian history.[336][337] His most notable military achievement was the decisiveThird Battle of Panipat, the largest land battle of the century which pushed theMaratha Empire out ofNorthern India.[338][339] The victory at Panipat created an aura of invincibility surrounding him, as laterBritish attempts to form a coalition against Ahmad Shah failed due to many Indian chiefs being terrified of him.[310] Throughout his reign as Shah, Ahmad Shah led over fifteen major military campaigns, includingnine punishing invasions of India, three inIranian Khorasan, and three inAfghan Turkestan.[50] Despite this, his invasions of India had greater consequences and led to the decline ofMuslim power in Northern India.[148]
As he invaded India andoccupied Delhi in 1757, most of the army of theBengal Subah were forcibly deployed against Ahmad Shah's invasion. Months later, the army of the Bengal Subah, severely understrength, was crushed at theBattle of Plassey by the British. Later, in 1765, Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II ceded complete rule ofBengal,Bihar, andOrrisa to the British. The Afghan wholesale massacres and enslavements in India, and the oppression of Sikhs and Hindus, as well as the destruction of their holy places shattered the formerMughal policy of religious tolerance. Stereotypes againstPashtuns also formed as a result, and they were deemed bloodthirsty zealots by the British and Indians alike. Ahmad Shah also seemed much more interested in plundering rather than restoring Muslim power in India, and his refusal to shift his capital from Kandahar to India made the idea of forging an empire in India untenable.[340]
Ahmad Shah is seen commonly as the founder of modernAfghanistan,[341] with his relentless military campaigns forging an independent Afghanistan, and an empire stretching from theOxus River in the north to theGulf of Oman in the south. In the east, it stretched from the mountains ofTibet andKashmir, toIran and as far asKerman in the western ends of his empire.[342] However, his empire was already struggling even before his death. Even though Kashmir,Peshawar,Multan, and many other regions beyond theIndus were under Afghan control, much ofPunjab fell into the hands of the Sikhs.[148]
Ahmad Shah's empire was also less equated to his much earlier predecessors, theGhaznavid andMughal empires, who are largely remembered by theirarchitecture andpatronization of the arts. As Lee remarks: "...Ahmad Shah spent more time destroying civilizations than he did in establishing his own."[45] Gupta also states Ahmad Shah may have been an excellentconqueror, but he failed in consolidating his empire.[343] Next to theOttoman Empire, the Durrani Empire is considered to be among the most significantIslamic empires of the second half of the 18th century.[344]
Poetry
Ahmad Shah was apoet, authoring several poems inPashto and occasionallyPersian.[345] HisDiwan (collection ofodes) showed visibleSufi influence.[346] He was known to admire Waqif, a poet from Batala, and even invited him to the Afghan court inKandahar. Nizam ud-Din Ishrat, another poet he had admired, was commissioned by Ahmad Shah to record his reign, composing the Shah-nama-i-Ahmadia, amathnawi poem of 614 pages.[33]
^Dalrymple & Anand 2016, p. 67: "Few possessors of the Koh-I-Noor have led happy lives, and while Ahmad Shah rarely lost a battle, he was eventually defeated by a foe more intractable than any army..."
^Gupta 1978, p. 192: "The Afghans fought with equal valour and energy and displayed strategy under the leadership of the greatest general of Asia of his time..."
^Gupta 1976, pp. 225–226: "Ahmad Shah Abdali was one of the greatest conquerors who have ever appeared in Asia."
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