| Ahmad Sanjar | |
|---|---|
 Ahmad Senjer seated on his throne, in a 1307Ilkhanid miniature. | |
| Sultan of theGreat Seljuq Empire | |
| Reign | 18 April 1118 – 8 May 1157 |
| Predecessor | Muhammad I Tapar |
| Co-sultan | Mahmud II (1118–1131) Dawud (1131–1132) Tughril II (1132–1134) Mas'ud (1134–1152) Malik-Shah III (1152–1153) Muhammad II (1153–1157) |
| Malik ofKhorasan | |
| Reign | 1097–1118 |
| Predecessor | Arslan Argun [tr] |
| Successor | Office abolished |
| Born | 6 November 1086 Sinjar |
| Died | 8 May 1157(1157-05-08) (aged 70) Merv |
| Consort | |
| Issue |
|
| Dynasty | Seljuq |
| Father | Malik-Shah I |
| Mother | Taj Safariyya Khatun[3][4] |
| Religion | Sunni Islam |
Ahmad Sanjar (Persian:احمد سنجر;full name:Muizz ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Adud ad-Dawlah Abul-Harith Ahmad Sanjar ibn Malik-Shah[5]) (6 November 1086 – 8 May 1157)[6] was theSeljuq ruler ofKhorasan from 1097 until 1118,[7] when he became theSultan of theSeljuq Empire, which he ruled until his death in 1157.
Sanjar was born on 6 November 1086[8] inSinjar, a town situated inUpper Mesopotamia. Although primary sources state that he was named after his birthplace (Rāvandi, p. 185; Ebn al-Jawzi, XVIII, p. 161)Bosworth notesSanjar is aTurkic name, denoting "he who pierces", "he who thrusts".[7] He was a son ofMalik Shah I and participated in wars of succession against his three brothers and a nephew, namelyMahmud I,Berkyaruq,Malik Shah II andMuhammad I. In 1096, he was given the province ofKhorasan to govern under his brother Muhammad I.[9] Over the next several years Ahmad Sanjar became the ruler of most ofIran with his capital atNishapur.
Malik Sanjar, commissioned by his elder brother SultanBerkyaruq to lead an expedition against his rebellious uncle Malik Arslan Argun, learned upon arriving inDamghan that Malik Arslan Argun had been killed by one of his slaves. Malik Sanjar and his army joined forces with Sultan Berkyaruq's army in Damghan and advanced towardsKhorasan. On April 21, 1097, they capturedNishapur and then Khorasan, which was under Arslan Argun's control. They then marched onBalkh, where Arslan Argun's army was stationed. Upon learning of Berkyaruq and Sanjar's approach, Arslan Argun's army, along with 7 year old son of Arslan Argun, retreated to the mountainous regions ofTokharistan and begged for forgiveness. Sultan Berkyaruq, accepting their plea for forgiveness, treated his 7 year old cousin well and granted him the fiefs that had been given to his uncle Arslan Argun during his father SultanMalik-Shah's reign. After resolving this matter, they marched onTermez and captured the city.[10]
In 1097,Berkyaruq appointed Sanjar as the governor ofKhorasan.[11][12] The Seljuk Prince Emir Muhammad[a] rebelled during Sanjar's term as governor ofKhorasan and sought support to take control of Khorasan. Emir Muhammad found this support from theGhaznavids and marched against Sanjar. Upon receiving news that Emir Muhammad had arrived with his army, Sanjar marched against him with his army. In the battle between the two sides, Emir Muhammad's army was defeated and Emir Muhammad was taken prisoner.[14][15][16][12] Thanks to this victory, Sanjar both increased his reputation and prevented Khorasan from falling into the hands of theGhaznavids. Because if Emir Muhammad had been victorious, he would have entered the service of theGhaznavids as the governor of Khorasan.[17][18]
The Seljuk prince Devlet-Shah, who formed an army inTokharistan and rebelled in 1098,[19] launched an expedition to seize control ofKhorasan. Devlet-Shah marched with his army towardsBalkh. Hearing that Devlet-Shah was approaching Balkh, Sanjar launched an expedition against him. The two armies met near Balkh. In the ensuing battle, Devlet-Shah and his army were defeated. Devlet-Shah was taken prisoner, his eyes sealed, and he was imprisoned.[18]
When Sanjar was governor ofKhorasan, there was a governor named Habeshi ibn Altuntak. Parts ofKhorasan,Tabaristan, andGerdkuh were under the control of the Habeshi. Sanjar launched an expedition against the Habeshi with an army of 20,000.[20] Later, Sanjar received news that a 5,000-strong Batini army[21] had arrived to support the Habeshi. The Habeshi army was larger than Sanjar's, and this caused unrest within Sanjar's army.[22] According to some sources, the Habeshi requested assistance fromBerkyaruk, who responded positively.Berkyaruq came toKhorasan with his army. The two armies met near Nushecan.[23][24][18] In the battle between the two parties, Sanjar's army defeated Berkyaruq's army. Habeshi bin Altuntaq was taken prisoner.[25][16][26]
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While Sanjar was not inKhorasan, the Kara-Khanid ruler Kadir Khan (Arslan Khan) took advantage of this and went on an expedition toKhorasan with an army of 100,000. Sanjar, who heard about this expedition of Kadir Khan, returned with his cavalry unit.[27] While Kadir Khan (Arslan Khan) was out hunting, he was taken prisoner in a sudden raid by the Seljuks. Sanjar ordered Kadir Khan to be killed.[28][29] Thus, Sanjar took control ofTransoxiana. Sanjar then attackedTermez, captured the city, and installed Muhammad ibn Suleiman on the Western Kara-Khanid throne. Muhammad ibn Suleiman ascended the throne inSamarkand.[30]
A civil war erupted within theKara-Khanid Khanate due to a struggle between two men, Ömer Khan and Arslan Khan Muhammed. Following this struggle, Arslan Khan Muhammed was defeated and fledSamarkand. However, despite his victory, Ömer Khan began experiencing problems with his army and was forced to leave Kara-Khanid territories and had toKhwarazm, which belonged to theSeljuk Empire. Upon arriving in Khwarazm, Ömer Khan engaged in a battle with Sanjar, the Seljuk governor ofKhorasan. Following this battle, Ömer Khan was defeated and killed.[31][32][33][34]
In 1110, theKara-Khanid prince Sagün Bey gathered an army and rebelled against the Kara-Khanid ruler Muhammad ibn Suleiman. In the face of this rebellion, Muhammad ibn Suleiman asked for help from Sanjar, the governor ofKhorasan of theSeljuk Empire, of which he was a vassal. Sanjar responded positively and sent his army to Kara-Khanid territory. The two armies met nearNakhshab. In the ensuing battle, Sagün Bey and his army suffered a major defeat. Sanjar's army gained considerable booty. After these events, Sanjar's army returned to Khorasan.[30][35]
Sanjar undertook a campaign to eliminate theNizari Ismailis within Persia and successfully drove them from a number of their strongholds, includingQuhistan andTabas.[36] However, an anecdote indicates that en route to their chief stronghold atAlamut, Sanjar woke up one day to find a dagger beside him, pinning a note fromHassan-i Sabbah stating that he (Hassan) would like peace. Sanjar, shocked by this event, sent envoys to Hassan and they both agreed to stay out of each other's way.[37]
The death ofMas'ud III of Ghazni in 1115 began a heated contest for the throne.Shirzad took the throne that year but the next year he was assassinated by his younger brother Arslan. Arslan had to face the rebellion of his other brother, Bahram, who received support from the Seljuk Sultan Ahmad Sanjar.[38] Ahmad Sanjar invading fromKhorasan took his army intoAfghanistan and inflicted a crushing defeat to Arslan near Ghazni at Shahrabad. Arslan managed to escape and Bahram succeeded to the throne as the Seljuk's vassal.[38]
On February 26, 1105 SultanBarkiyaruq died. He chose his younger son, Muizzeddin Malik-Shah, as heir to the throne. Malik-Shah took the nameMalik-Shah II after being proclaimed the Sultan of the Seljuk Empire. However, the true power was in the hands of his uncle,Muhammad Tapar. In the same year, Muhammad Tapar dethroned his nephew and started to rule the State himself as sultan. When Muhammad died on April 4, 1118, his sonMahmud II was declared as new sultan. When Muhammad's son Mahmud II ascended the throne,Emir ofYazdGarshasp II fell into disgrace; slander about him spread to the court that made him lose confidence, and made Mahmud send a military force to Yazd where Garshasp was arrested and jailed inJibal, while Yazd was granted to the royal cupbearer. Garshasp, however, escaped and returned to Yazd, where he requested protection from Ahmad Sanjar (Garshasp's wife was the sister of Ahmad Sanjar).[39]
Garshasp urged Ahmad to invade the domains of Mahmud in Central Persia, and gave him information on how to march to Central Persia, and the ways to combat Mahmud. Meanwhile Ahmad had his own ambitions, wishing to restore the unity of the Great Seljuks under one Sultan, as had been prior to the death ofMalikshah. Mahmud's attempt of placating his uncle with a large tribute of 200,000 dinars, coupled the cession of Mazandaran, failed.[40]
Sanjar, upon learning that his nephew Mahmud had distanced himself from state affairs and made wrong decisions, organized an expedition to the western part of his country with an army of 20,000 men, including 18 elephants. Upon hearing that his uncle Sanjar was campaigning westward, Mahmud set out against him with an army of 30,000 men. Mahmud's army included prominent emirs such as Hacib Ali Bar, Atabek Guzoğlu, Mengübars, Sungur Buhari, and Karaca Saki, along with Porsukoğlları.[41] Until in 11 Agust 1119[42] Sanjar andfive kings, as well as someNizari forces,[43] met Mahmud atSaveh (The 5 kings being: Garshasp II himself, the emirs ofSistan and ofKhwarazm, and two other unnamed kings).[44][40] When the war broke out between the two sides, Mahmud's army, being numerically superior, began to gain the upper hand. Sanjar's right and left flanks were routed. Seeing the situation turn against him, Sanjar ordered elephants to be brought onto the battlefield. Upon the elephants' entry into the battle, Mahmud's cavalry retreated in fear. Following this, the war turned in Sanjar's favor, and Mahmud's army was routed. Mahmud fled the battlefield.[45]
Victorious, Sanjar pushed toBaghdad. Whereupon Mahmud was married to one of Sanjar's daughters and made his uncle's heir.[44] However, the narrowness of his victory highlighted to Sanjar just how precarious his situation was. Later, after some efforts, peace was made between the two sides. Mahmud, as Sanjar's vassal, was appointed to govern the western territories of the country, excludingRay[46] and Sanjar restored the domains of Garshasp II,[47] before returning back east.[40]
As a result of the internal turmoil that broke out in the WesternKara-Khanid country in 1130, the WesternKara-Khanid ruler Arslan Khan asked for help from Sanjar. After a while, he announced that the internal unrest had ended and asked for Sanjar to return. Later, it was revealed that Sanjar would be assassinated by Arslan Khan's order. Following these events, Sanjar marched toSamarkand with his army and laid siege to the city. TheSeljuk army under the command of Sanjar capturedSamarkand.[48][49][18]
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When theQara-Khitans migrating west arrived in theKara-Khanid lands, the Eastern Kara-Khanid ruler Ahmed Khan defeated the Qara-Khitans in 1122 and took them into his service. Later, after the death of Ahmed Khan, during the reign of the ruler who ascended to the Eastern Kara-Khanid throne, a rebellion broke out in the Eastern Kara-Khanid lands, including many tribes, primarily theOghuz andKarluks. Taking advantage of this rebellion, the Qara-Khitans capturedBalasagun. The Eastern Kara-Khanid, who were vassals of theGreat Seljuk Empire, asked for help from the Great Seljuk Sultan Sanjar. Sanjar also organized an expedition with his army to the Eastern Kara-Khanid lands in 1130. The leader of the rebels fled upon hearing of Sanjar's arrival. Sanjar defeated the advancing towards the Eastern Islamic lands Qara-Khitai army nearKashgar, and then defeated the Oghuz, Karluks and other tribes.[50][51]
After Mahmud's death, his sonDavud and brothersMas'ud and Seljuk-Shah started a struggle for power. Sanjar, disturbed by this struggle, organized an expedition with his army to the western part of the country.When Sanjar arrived in the region, news spread that he would march onBaghdad with his army. Later, Sanjar's name was removed from thekhutbahs[52] and Mas'ud, Seljuk-Shah and the caliphAl-Mustarshid formed an alliance against Sanjar.[53] Sanjar prepared his army against this alliance and marched against them. The two armies met nearDinavar. As a result of the battle, the allies were defeated by Sanjar.[15] Sanjar later gaveTughril the lands underMahmud's control.[54]
Bahram Shah, Sultan of theGhaznavid Empire, a vassal of theGreat Seljuk Empire, failed to pay taxes to the Seljuk Empire. He also seized the property of his own people and mistreated them. Following these developments, Sultan Sanjar decided to campaign against the Ghaznavids. In August or September 1135, the Seljuk army mobilized and entered the Ghaznavid Empire's territory, arriving near their capital,Ghazni. Bahram Shah did not dare to fight and sent ambassadors to Sultan Sanjar. Bahram Shah then abandoned Ghazni and fled toIndia. Consequently, the Seljuk army under Sultan Sanjar captured Ghazni, the Ghaznavid capital, and seized Bahram Shah's property. Sultan Sanjar also remedied the grievances of the people of Ghazni and put the state's affairs in order.[55] In exchange for Bahram Shah's apology and promise not to repeat his past mistakes, Sultan Sanjar pardoned him and reinstated him as Sultan of Ghaznavid Empire.[56][57] Additionally, the Seljuks captured 10,000 Ghaznavid soldiers in this campaign.[58]
Atsiz, one of Sanjar's governors, capturedJand andMangyshlak and killed the Muslims who fought against the enemy forces in this region. After these events, Sanjar decided to organize an expedition againstAtsiz. In 1138, Sanjar marched with his army toKhwarezm and defeated Atsiz and his army in the Battle ofHazorasp and capturedKhwarezm. He then left the governorship ofKhwarezm to his nephewSuleiman-Shah and returned to his capital,Merv.[59][60][61]
In 1141, Ahmad, along with Garshasp II, marched to confront theKara Khitan threat and engaged them near Samarkand at theBattle of Qatwan. He suffered an astounding defeat, and Garshasp was killed. Ahmad escaped with only fifteen of his elite horsemen, losing all Seljuq territory east of theSyr Darya (Jaxartes).[62][63]
Atsiz entered into a struggle withSuleiman-Shah in 1141 and capturedKhwarezm. Atsiz declared his loyalty to Sanjar, who was preparing to go on a campaign against theKara-Khitans. Since Sanjar was also going on a campaign against theKara-Khitans, he did not send him an army and left him as the governor ofKhwarezm. Taking advantage of the defeat following theBattle of Qatwan,Atsiz attackedKhorasan, occupied and plundered many cities, including the capitalMerv, and captured their scholars. After escaping the Battle of Qatwan, Sanjar marched against Atsiz with the new army he had established. After these events, Atsiz fled to Khwarezm. Sanjar then marched to Khwarezm with his army in 1143. Sanjar entered theKhwarezm region and invaded Khwarezm. Later, Sanjar advanced toUrgench, the capital of Khwarezm, whereAtsiz was located, and besieged the city. Realizing that he could not cope with Sanjar, Atsiz asked for forgiveness from Sanjar and returned the goods he had plundered and the scholars he had captured.[64][65][66]
When Sanjar received news thatAtsiz was continuing to disobey, he sent an envoy to him. While the envoy was withAtsiz, he informed Sanjar that there was a plan to assassinate Sanjar and that two assassins had been sent toKhorasan for this purpose.Atsiz, who learned of what the envoy had done, killed the envoy. Following these events, Sanjar marched onKhwarezm with his army in 1147. Sanjar first besieged and captured the castle ofHazorasp. Sanjar then advanced towardsUrgench, the capital ofKhwarezm. Realizing that he would be defeated by Sanjar,Atsiz sent envoys, begged for forgiveness and offered obedience. Thereupon, Sanjar forgave him and left him as the governor ofKhwarezm.[66][15][67]
After theBattle of Qatwan, theGhurids led byAla al-Din Husayn, a vassal of theGhaznavids, capturedHerat and advanced towardsBalkh. Following these developments, the Seljuk commander Emir Kumac, who took action to stop the Ghurids, was defeated.[15] Later,Ala al-Din Husayn attacked theGhaznavids, a vassal of the Seljuks. He occupiedGhazna, the capital of the Ghaznavids, and burned the city.[68] Later,Ala al-Din Husayn declared his independence.[69] Following these events, Sanjar organized an expedition againstAla al-Din Husayn. The two armies met at a place called Nab nearHerat on June 24, 1152. In the ensuing battle,Ala al-Din Husayn was decisively defeated and taken prisoner by Sanjar.[70]
In 1152, Sanjar launched a campaign against theNizari Ismailis. Sanjar's army marched onTurshēz. The Seljuk army attacked Nizari Ismaili towns and castles. Sanjar's army ravaged and occupied theNizari Ismaili towns and castles. After dealing a heavy blow to the Nizari Ismailis, Sanjar ended the campaign and returned with his army.[21]
Sanjar's as well as the Seljuks' rule collapsed as a consequence of yet another unexpected defeat, this time at the hands of the Seljuks’ own tribe, theOghuz Turks, in 1153.[7] Sanjar was captured during the battle and held in captivity until 1156.[71] It brought chaos to the Empire - situation later exploited by the victorious Turkmens, whose hordes would overrun Khorasan unopposed, wreaking colossal damage on the province and prestige of Sanjar.[71] Sanjar eventually escaped from captivity in the fall of 1156, but soon died inMerv (present-day Turkmenistan), in 1157. After his death, Turkic rulers, Turkmen tribal forces, and other secondary powers competed for Khorasan, and after a long period of confrontations, the province was finally conquered by theGhurids in 1192, and by theKhwarazmians in the early 1200s.[72][73]
Sanjar died in 1157 and was buried inMerv.His tomb was destroyed by theMongols in 1221, during theirinvasion of the Khwarezmian Empire.[74]
The death of Sanjar meant the end of the Seljuq dynasty as an empire, since they controlled onlyIraq andAzerbaijan afterwards. Sanjar is considered one of the most prominent Seljuq sultans and was the longest reigning Muslim ruler untilthe Mongols arrived. Although of Turkic origin, Sanjar was highly Iranized, and due to his feats, even became a legendary figure like some of the mythological characters in theShahnameh.[75] Indeed, medieval sources described Sanjar as having "the majesty of theKhosrows and the glory of theKayanids".[7]Persian poetry flourished under Sanjar, and his court included some of the greatest Persian poets, such asMu'izzi,Nizami Aruzi, andAnvari.[7]
Sanjar was widely regarded as a pious and God-fearing ruler, with sources noting his personal ascetic practices, such as wearing simple attire. He was also a diligent student of religious knowledge and maintained close relationships with the ulema, ascetics, and hermits. This devotion was so prominent that his enemies, after his defeat and capture, specifically targeted religious scholars and government officials to express their anti-Sanjar sentiment.
Described as a king "of right opinion, sound belief, and truthful promise", Sanjar was a fervent defender ofSunni Islam. His reign was characterized by a strict adherence to theSunna and the high road of justice. He was actively involved in combatting heresy, even being credited with saving orthodox Islam in Herat by defeating the Batini leader Habashi b. Altutiyaq.[76]
One of his wives wasTurkan Khatun. She was the daughter of Muhammad Arslan Khan, the ruler of theKara-Khanid Khanate.[77] She died in April 1156,[78] and was buried in Yusuf Hamadani Mausoleum Complex in Merv.[79] Another wife wasAbkhaziyya Khatun. She was the daughter of KingDemetrius I of Georgia, and the widow of his nephew SultanGhiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. They married after Mas'ud's death in 1152.[80][81][82] One of Sanjar's daughters was Mah-i Mulk Khatun. She was born in 1105. In probably 1119, Sanjar married her to his nephewMahmud II. When she died aged seventeen[83] in 1122,[84] Sanjar sent another daughter, Amir Sitti Khatun, to be his wife.Melik Shah III and Gawhar Nasab Khatun were the children of this union.[83] She died in 1129.[84]Amira Khatun,[85] another of Sanjar's daughters married Abbasid CaliphAl-Mustarshid[83] in 1124.[86] Another daughter of Sanjar, Gawhar Khatun, married his nephew,Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud in 1134.[87] A daughter of this union was married by Mas'ud to his nephew Dawud, son of Mahmud II. They failed to get on together, and Ma'sud gave his daughter to Dawud's brother,Muhammad II.[83]
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| Preceded by | Sultan of the Seljuq Empire 1118–1153 | Succeeded by Divisions ofSeljuq dynasty |
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