Ahl al-Bayt (Arabic:أَهْل ٱلْبَيْت,lit. 'people of the house') refers to the family of theIslamic prophetMuhammad. InSunni Islam, the term has also been extended to all descendants of theBanu Hashim (Muhammad's clan) and even to allMuslims.[1][2] InShia Islam, the term is limited to Muhammad, his daughterFatima, his cousin and son-in-lawAli, and their two sons,Ḥasan andḤusayn. A common Sunni view adds thewives of Muhammad to these five.[3]
While all Muslims revere the Ahl al-Bayt,[4][5] Shia Muslims assert that members of the Ahl al-Bayt arespiritual successors to Muhammad, possessing divine knowledge andinfallibility. TheTwelver Shiʿa also believe in the redemptive power of the pain and martyrdom endured by the members of the Ahl al-Bayt, particularly Husayn.[2][4] Sunni Muslims, who do not believe in spiritual succession to Muhammad, only hold the Ahl al-Bayt in high regard.
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Whenahl (أَهْل) appears in construction with a person, it refers to his blood relatives. However, the word also acquires wider meanings with other nouns.[6] In particular,bayt (بَيْت) is translated as 'habitation' and 'dwelling',[7] and thus the basic translation ofahl al-bayt is '(the) inhabitants of the house'.[6] That is,ahl al-bayt literally translates to '(the) people of the house'. In the absence of the definite articleal-, the literal translation ofahl bayt is 'household'.[6]
The phraseahl al-bayt appears three times in theQuran, the central religious text ofIslam, in relation toAbraham (11:73),Moses (28:12), andMuhammad (33:33).[6] For Abraham and Moses,ahl al-bayt in the Quran is unanimously interpreted as their families.[6] Yet merit is also a criterion of membership in a prophet's family in the Quran.[7] That is, pagan or disloyal members of the families of the past prophets are not excluded from God's punishment.[1][8] In particular,Noah's family is saved from thedeluge, except his wife and one of his sons, about whom Noah's plea was rejected according to verse 11:46, "O Noah, he [your son] is not of your family (ahl)."[9] Families of the past prophets are often given a prominent role in the Quran.[10] Therein, their kin are selected by God as the spiritual and material heirs to the prophets.[11][12]
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The household of Muhammad, often referred to as theAhl al-Bayt, appear in verse 33:33 of the Quran,[13] also known as theverse of purification.[14] The last passage of the verse of purification reads, "God only desires to remove defilement from you, Oahl al-bayt, and to purify you completely."[13] Muslims disagree as to who belongs to Muhammad'sahl al-bayt and what privileges or responsibilities they have.[1]
The majority of the traditions quoted by theSunni exegeteal-Tabari (d. 923) identify the Ahl al-Bayt with theAhl al-Kisa, namely, Muhammad, his daughterFatima, her husbandAli, and their two sons,Hasan andHusayn.[15][16][17] Such reports are also cited inSahih Muslim,Sunnan al-Tirmidhi,Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal,[18][19] all canonical Sunni collections ofhadith, and by some other Sunni authorities, includingal-Suyuti (d. 1505), al-Hafiz al-Kabir,[20]al-Hakim al-Nishapuri (d. 1014),[21] andIbn Kathir (d. 1373).[22]
In possibly the earliest version of thehadith of thekisa,[23] Muhammad's wifeUmm Salama relates that he gathered Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn under his cloak and prayed, "O God, these are myahl al-bayt and my closest family members; remove defilement from them and purify them completely."[6][1] Some accounts continue that Umm Salama then asked Muhammad, "Am I with thee, O Messenger of God?" but received the negative response, "Thou shalt obtain good. Thou shalt obtain good." Among others, such reports are given inSunnan al-Tirmidhi,Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal,[24] and by Ibn Kathir, al-Suyuti, and the Shia exegeteMuhammad H. Tabatabai (d. 1981).[13] Yet another Sunni version of thishadith appends Umm Salama to the Ahl al-Bayt.[3] In another Sunni version, Muhammad's servant Wathila bint al-Asqa' is also counted in the Ahl al-Bayt.[25]
Elsewhere inMusnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Muhammad is said to have recited the last passage in the verse of purification every morning when he passed by Fatima's house to remind her household of the morning prayer.[26][27] In hismubahala (lit. 'mutual cursing') with a delegation ofNajraniChristians, Muhammad is also believed to have gathered the above four under his cloak and referred to them as hisahl al-bayt, according to Shia and some Sunni sources,[28][17] includingSahih Muslim andSunan al-Tirmidhi.[29] This makeup of the Ahl al-Bayt is echoed by the IslamicistLaura Veccia Vaglieri (d. 1989),[26] and also reported unanimously in Shia sources.[3] In Shia theology works, the Ahl al-Bayt often also includes the remainingShia imams.[15] The term is sometimes loosely applied in Shia writings to all descendants of Ali and Fatima.[15][30][31]
Perhaps because the earlier injunctions in the verse of purification are addressed at Muhammad's wives,[1] some Sunni authors, such as al-Wahidi (d. 1075), have exclusively interpreted the Ahl al-Bayt as Muhammad's wives.[15][6] Others have noted that the last passage of this verse is grammatically inconsistent with the previous injunctions (masculine plural versus feminine plural pronouns).[32] Thus the Ahl al-Bayt is not or is not limited to Muhammad's wives.[13][1][26] Ibn Kathir, for instance, includes Ali, Fatima, and their two sons in the Ahl al-Bayt, in addition to Muhammad's wives.[15] Indeed, certain Sunnihadiths support the inclusion of Muhammad's wives in the Ahl al-Bayt, including some reports on the authority ofIbn Abbas andIkrima, two earlyMuslim figures.[33]
Alternatively, the IslamicistOliver Leaman proposes that marriage to a prophet does not guarantee inclusion in hisahl al-bayt. He argues that, in verse 11:73,[6]Sara is included inAbraham'sahl al-bayt only after receiving the news of her imminent motherhood to two prophets,Isaac andJacob. Likewise, Leaman suggests thatMoses' mother is counted as a member ofahl al-bayt in verse 28:12, not for being married toImran, but for being the mother of Moses.[7] Similarly, in their bid for inclusion in the Ahl al-Bayt, theAbbasids argued that women, noble and holy as they may be, could not be considered a source of pedigree (nasab). As the descendants of Muhammad's paternal uncleAbbas, they claimed that he was equal to Muhammad's father after the latter died.[6][34]
As hinted above, some Sunni authors have broadened its application to include in the Ahl al-Bayt the clan of Muhammad (Banu Hashim),[6][4] the Banu Muttalib,[3] the Abbasids,[13][6][15] and even theUmayyads, who had descended fromHashim's nephewUmayya.[1][15] Indeed, another Sunni version of thehadithal-kisa is evidently intended to append the Abbasids to the Ahl al-Bayt.[15] This Abbasid claim was in turn the cornerstone of their bid for legitimacy.[6][1] Similarly, a Sunni version of thehadithal-thaqalayn defines the Ahl al-Bayt as the descendants of Ali and his brothers (Aqil andJafar), and Muhammad's uncle Abbas.[3][15]
The first twoRashidun caliphs,Abu Bakr andUmar, have also been included in the Ahl al-Bayt in some Sunni reports, as they were both fathers-in-law of Muhammad. Nevertheless, these and the accounts about the inclusion of the Umayyads in the Ahl al-Bayt might have been later reactions to the Abbasid claims to inclusion in the Ahl al-Bayt and their own bid for legitimacy.[1] The term has also been interpreted as theMeccan tribe ofQuraysh,[6][1] or the whole Muslim community.[3][1] For instance, the IslamicistRudi Paret (d. 1983) identifiesbayt (lit. 'house') in the verse of purification with theKaaba, located in the holiest site in Islam. However, his theory has only found few supporters, notablyMoshe Sharon, another expert.[6][1][35]
A typical Sunni compromise is to define the Ahl al-Bayt as the Ahl al-Kisa (Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Hasan, Husayn) together with Muhammad's wives,[3] which might also reflect the majority opinion of medieval Sunni exegetes.[36] Among modern Islamicists, this view is shared byIgnác Goldziher (d. 1921) and his coauthors,[15] and mentioned by Sharon,[6] whileWilferd Madelung (d. 2023) also includes the Banu Hashim in the Ahl al-Bayt in view of their blood relation to Muhammad.[33] In contrast, Shia limits the Ahl al-Bayt to Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn, pointing to authentic traditions in Sunni and Shia sources.[37][7][32] Their view is supported by Veccia Vaglieri andHusain M. Jafri (d. 2019), another expert.[26]
Families and descendants of the past prophets hold a prominent position in the Quran. Therein, their descendants become spiritual and material heirs to keep their fathers' covenants intact.[38][39] Muhammad's kin are also mentioned in the Quran in various contexts.[40]
Known as the verse of themawadda (lit. 'affection' or'love'), verse 42:23 of the Quran contains the passage, "[O Mohammad!] Say, 'I ask not of you any reward for it, save affection among kinsfolk.'"[41] The Shia-leaning historianIbn Ishaq (d. 767) narrates that Muhammad specifiedal-qurba in this verse as Ali, Fatima, and their two sons, Hasan and Husayn.[42] This is also the view of some Sunni scholars, includingal-Razi (d. 1209),Baydawi (d. 1319),[43] and Ibn al-Maghazili.[42] Most Sunni authors, however, reject the Shia view and offer various alternatives,[41] chief among them is that this verse enjoins love for kinsfolk in general.[44][45] InTwelver Shia, the love in the verse of themawadda also entails obedience to the Ahl al-Bayt as the source of exoteric and esoteric religious guidance.[5][46]
A Christian envoy from Najran, located inSouth Arabia, arrived in Medina circa 632 and negotiated a peace treaty with Muhammad.[47][48] During their stay, the two parties may have also debated the nature ofJesus, human or divine, although the delegation ultimately rejected the Islamic belief,[49] which acknowledges the miraculous birth of Jesus but dismisses the Christians' belief in his divinity.[50] Linked to this ordeal is verse 3:61 of the Quran.[51] This verse instructs Muhammad to challenge his opponents tomubahala (lit. 'mutual cursing'),[32] perhaps when the debate had reached a deadlock.[52]
And to whosoever disputes with thee over it, after the knowledge that has come unto thee, say, "Come! Let us call upon our sons and your sons, our women and your women, ourselves and yourselves. Then let us pray earnestly, so as to place the curse of God upon those who lie."[51]
The delegation withdrew from the challenge and negotiated for peace.[48] The majority of reports indicate that Muhammad appeared for the occasion of themubahala, accompanied by Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn.[53] Such reports are given by Ibn Ishaq,[54] al-Razi,[54]Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (d. 875), Hakim al-Nishapuri,[55] and Ibn Kathir.[56] The inclusion of these four relatives by Muhammad, as his witnesses and guarantors in themubahala ritual,[57][58] must have raised their religious rank within the community.[49][59] If the word 'ourselves' in this verse is a reference to Ali and Muhammad, as Shia authors argue, then the former naturally enjoys a similar religious authority in the Quran as the latter.[60][61]
The Quran also reserves for Muhammad's kin a fifth (khums) of booty and a part offay. The latter comprises lands and properties conquered peacefully by Muslims.[44] This Quranic directive is seen as compensation for the exclusion of Muhammad and his family from alms (sadaqa,zakat). Indeed, almsgiving is considered an act of purification for ordinary Muslims and their donations should not reach Muhammad's kin as that would violate their state of purity in the Quran.[62]
Thehadith of thethaqalayn (lit. 'two treasures') is a widely-reported prophetichadith that introduces the Quran and the progeny of Muhammad as the only two sources of divine guidance after his death.[28] Thishadith is of particular significance in Twelver Shia, where theTwelve Imams, all descendants of Muhammad, are viewed as his spiritual and political successors.[63] The version that appears inMusnad Ahmad, a canonical Sunnihadith collection, reads,
I [Muhammad] left among you two treasures which, if you cling to them, you shall not be led into error after me. One of them is greater than the other: The book of God (Quran), which is a rope stretched from Heaven to Earth, and [the second one is] my progeny, my Ahl al-Bayt. These two shall not be parted until they return to the pool [of abundance in paradise,kawthar].[28]
Thehadith of the ark is attributed to Muhammad and likens his household toNoah's ark. Reported by both Shia and Sunni authorities, the version presented inal-Mustadrak, a Sunni collection of prophetic traditions, reads,[64] "Truly the people of my house (Ahl al-Bayt) in my community is like Noah's ark: Whoever takes refuge therein is saved and whoever opposes it is drowned."[65]
The sanctity of a prophet's family was likely an accepted principle at the time of Muhammad.[66] Today, all Muslims venerate the household of Muhammad,[4][2][5] and blessings on his family (āl) are invoked in every prayer.[67] In many Muslim communities, high social status is granted to people claiming descent from Ali and Fatima. They are calledsayyids orsharifs.[31][4][30] Several Muslim heads of state and politicians have also claimed blood descent from Muhammad, including the Alawid dynasty ofMorocco, the Hashimite dynasty of Iraq and ofJordan, and the leader of theIranian revolution,Khomeini.[4]
Sunnis too revere the Ahl al-Bayt,[4] perhaps more so before modern times.[1] MostSufitariqs (brotherhoods) also trace their spiritual chain to Muhammad through Ali and revere the Ahl al-Kisa as the Holy Five.[4] It is, however, the (Twelver andIsma'ili) Shias who hold the Ahl al-Bayt in the highest esteem, regarding them as the rightful leaders of the Muslim community after Muhammad. They also believe in the redemptive power of the pain and martyrdom endured by the Ahl al-Bayt (particularly by Husayn) for those who empathize with their divine cause and suffering.[2][4] Twelver Shias await the messianic advent ofMuhammad al-Mahdi, a descendant of Muhammad, who is expected to usher in an era of peace and justice by overcoming tyranny and oppression on earth.[68][4] Some Shia sources also ascribe cosmological importance to the Ahl al-Bayt, where they are viewed as the reason for the creation.[3]
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