Felis pardus was thescientific name used byCarl Linnaeus in the10th edition ofSystema Naturae in 1758. His description was based on descriptions by earlier naturalists such asConrad Gessner. He assumed that the leopard occurred in India.[4]In the 18th and 19th centuries, several naturalists described various leopard skins and skulls from Africa, including:[5]
Panthera pardus brockmani by Pocock in 1932 fromSomaliland[9]
Results ofgenetic analyses indicate that all African leopard populations are generally closely related and represent only onesubspecies, namelyP. p. pardus.[10][11][12] However, results of ananalysis of molecular variance and the pairwisefixation index of African leopard museum specimens shows differences in the ND-5 locus spanning five majorhaplogroups, namely in Central–Southern Africa, Southern Africa, West Africa, coastal West–Central Africa, and Central–East Africa. In some cases, fixation indices showed higher diversity than forPanthera pardus nimr andPanthera pardus tulliana inAsia.[13]
A dark-coloured leopard skin from Central AfricaA leopard in theSerengeti
The African leopard exhibits great variation in coat color, depending on location and habitat. Coat colour varies from pale yellow to deep gold or tawny, and sometimesblack, and is patterned with black rosettes while the head, lower limbs and belly are spotted with solid black. Male leopards are larger, averaging 58 kg (128 lb) with 90 kg (200 lb) being the maximum weight attained by a male. Females weigh about 37.5 kg (83 lb) on average.[14]
The African leopard issexually dimorphic; males are larger and heavier than females.[15] Between 1996 and 2000, 11 adult leopards were radio-collared onNamibian farmlands. Males weighed 37.5 to 52.3 kg (83 to 115 lb) only, and females 24 to 33.5 kg (53 to 74 lb).[16] The heaviest known leopard weighed about 96 kg (212 lb), and was recorded inSouth West Africa.[17]
According toAlfred Edward Pease, black leopards in North Africa were similar in size tolions. AnAlgerian leopard killed in 1913 was reported to have measured approximately 8 ft 10 in (2.69 m), before being skinned.[18]
Leopards inhabiting the mountains of theCape Provinces appear smaller and less heavy than leopards further north.[19] Leopards in Somalia and Ethiopia are also said to be smaller.[20]
The skull of aWest African leopard specimen measured 11.25 in (286 mm) inbasal length, and 7.125 in (181.0 mm) in breadth, and weighed 1 lb 12 oz (0.79 kg). To compare, that of anIndian leopard measured 11.2 in (280 mm) in basal length, and 7.9 in (20 cm) in breadth, and weighed 2 lb 4 oz (1.0 kg).[21]
The African leopards inhabited a wide range of habitats withinAfrica, from mountainous forests to grasslands andsavannahs, excluding only extremely sandy desert. It is most at risk in areas of semi-desert, where scarce resources often result in conflict with nomadic farmers and their livestock.[22][23]It used to occur in most ofsub-Saharan Africa, occupying bothrainforest and ariddesert habitats. It lived in all habitats with annual rainfall above 50 mm (2.0 in), and can penetrate areas with less than this amount of rainfall along river courses. It ranges up to 5,700 m (18,700 ft), has been sighted on high slopes of theRuwenzori andVirunga volcanoes, and observed when drinking thermal water 37 °C (99 °F) in theVirunga National Park.[23]
The African leopard appears to be successful at adapting to altered natural habitat and settled environments in the absence of intense persecution. It has often been recorded close to major cities. But already in the 1980s, it has become rare throughout much ofWest Africa.[24] Now, it remains patchily distributed within historical limits.[2] During surveys in 2013, it was recorded inGbarpolu County andBong County in theUpper Guinean forests ofLiberia.[25]
Leopards are extremely rare in North Africa. Arelict population persisted in theAtlas Mountains ofMorocco until the 1990s, in forest and mountain steppe in elevations of 300 to 2,500 m (980 to 8,200 ft), where the climate is temperate to cold.[26] The last individual in the area was recorded in 1996.[27]
In 2014, a leopard was killed in theElba Protected Area in southeasternEgypt. This was the first sighting of a leopard in the country since the 1950s.[29]
In 2016, a leopard was recorded for the first time in a semi-arid area of Yechilay in northernEthiopia.[30]
InKruger National Park, male leopards and female leopards with cubs were more active at night than solitary females. The highest rates of daytime activity were recorded for leopards using thorn thickets during the wet season, whenimpala also used them.[31] Leopards are generally most active between sunset and sunrise, and kill moreprey at this time.[32]
The leopard has an exceptional ability to adapt to changes in prey availability, and has a very broad diet. It takes small prey where largeungulates are less common. The known prey of leopards ranges fromdung beetles to adultelands, which can reach 900 kg (2,000 lb).[23] In sub-Saharan Africa, at least 92 prey species have been documented in leopard scat, includingrodents,birds, small and largeantelopes,hyraxes,hares, andarthropods. Leopards generally focus their hunting activity on locally abundant medium-sized ungulates in the 20 to 80 kg (44 to 176 lb) range, while opportunistically taking other prey. Average intervals between ungulate kills range from seven[31] to 12–13 days.[32]Leopards often hide large kills in trees, a behavior for which great strength is required. There have been several observations of leopards hoisting carcasses of younggiraffes, estimated to weigh up to 125 kg (276 lb), i.e. 2–3 times the weight of the leopard, up to 5.7 m (19 ft) into trees.[32]
An African leopard killed byCarl Akeley (right) barehanded
Throughout Africa, the major threats to leopards are habitat conversion and intense persecution,[41] especially in retribution for real and perceived livestock loss.[42]The Upper Guinean forests in Liberia are considered abiodiversity hotspot, but have already been fragmented into two blocks. Large tracts are affected by commerciallogging andmining activities, and are converted for agricultural use including large-scaleoil palmplantations inconcessions obtained by a foreign company.[25]
The impact oftrophy hunting on populations is unclear, but may have impacts at the demographic and population level, especially when females are shot. InTanzania, only males are allowed to be hunted, but females comprised 28.6% of 77 trophies shot between 1995 and 1998.[43] Removing an excessively high number of males may produce a cascade of deleterious effects on the population. Although male leopards provide no parental care to cubs, the presence of the sire allows females to raise cubs with a reduced risk ofinfanticide by other males. There are few reliable observations of infanticide in leopards, but new males entering the population are likely to kill existing cubs.[44]
Analysis of leopard scats andcamera trapping surveys in contiguous forest landscapes in theCongo Basin revealed a high dietary niche overlap and an exploitative competition between leopards andbushmeat hunters. With increasing proximity to settlements and concomitant human hunting pressure, leopards exploit smaller prey and occur at considerably reduced population densities. In the presence of intensive bushmeat hunting surrounding human settlements, leopards appear entirely absent.[45]Transhumantpastoralists from the border area between Sudan and the Central African Republic take their livestock to theChinko area. They are accompanied by armed merchants who engage in poaching large herbivores, sale of bushmeat and trading leopard skins inAm Dafok. Surveys in the area revealed that the leopard population decreased from 97 individuals in 2012 to 50 individuals in 2017. Rangers confiscated large amounts ofpoison in the camps of livestock herders, who admitted that they use it for poisoning predators.[46]
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^Allen, G. M. (1939).A Checklist of African Mammals. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. Vol. 83. Cambridge, Mass.: The Museum. pp. 1–763.
^Schreber, J. C. D. (1778)."Der Panther".Die Säugethiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur, mit Beschreibungen. Erlangen: Wolfgang Walther. pp. 384–386.
^Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry, A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting, A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.; Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.; Luo, S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O'Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.; Bruford, M.; Groves, C.; Hoffmann, M.; Nowell, K.; Timmons, Z. & Tobe, S. (2017)."A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group"(PDF).Cat News. Special Issue 11:73–75.
^Anco, C.; Kolokotronis, S. O.; Henschel, P.; Cunningham, S. W.; Amato, G. & Hekkala, E. (2017). "Historical mitochondrial diversity in African leopards (Panthera pardus) revealed by archival museum specimens".Mitochondrial DNA Part A.29 (3):455–473.doi:10.1080/24701394.2017.1307973.PMID28423965.S2CID4348541.
^Kirby, F. V. (1899)."The Leopard (Felis pardus)". In Bryden, H. A. (ed.).Great and small game of Africa. London: Rowland Ward Ltd. pp. 568–574.
^abcNowell, K. & Jackson, P. (1996)."LeopardPanthera pardus"(PDF).Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. pp. 1–334.ISBN2-8317-0045-0.
^Martin, R. B. & De Meulenaer, T. (1988). Survey of the status of the leopard (Panthera pardus) in sub-Saharan Africa (Report). Lausanne: CITES Secretariat.
^Rossi, L., Scuzzarella, C. M., & Angelici, F. M. (2020). "Extinct or Perhaps Surviving Relict Populations of Big Cats: Their Controversial Stories and Implications for Conservation". In Problematic Wildlife II (pp. 393-417). Springer, Cham.
^Busby, G. B. J.; Gottelli, D.; Durant, S.; Wacher, T.; Marker, L.; Belbachir, F.; de Smet, K.; Belbachir-Bazi, A.; Fellous, A. & Belghoul, M. (2006). "Part 5: Using Molecular Genetics to study the presence of Endangered carnivores".A Report from the Sahelo Saharan Interest Group. Algeria: Parc National de l'Ahaggar Survey.
^Soultan, A.; Attum, O.; Hamada, A.; Hatab, E.-B.; Ahmed, S. E.; Eisa, A.; Sharif, I. A.; Nagy, A. & Shohdi, W. (2017). "Recent observation for leopardPanthera pardus in Egypt".Mammalia.81 (1):115–117.doi:10.1515/mammalia-2015-0089.S2CID90676105.
^Westerberg, M.; Craig, E. & Meheretu, Y. (2017). "First record of African leopard (Panthera pardus pardus L.) in semi-arid area of Yechilay, northern Ethiopia".African Journal of Ecology.56 (2):375–377.doi:10.1111/aje.12436.
^Fay, J. M.; Carroll, R.; Kerbis Peterhans, J. C.; Harris, D. (1995). "Leopard attack on and consumption of gorillas in the Central African Republic".Journal of Human Evolution.29 (1):93–99.Bibcode:1995JHumE..29...93F.doi:10.1006/jhev.1995.1048.
^Jenny, D. (1996). "Spatial organization of leopardsPanthera pardus in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast: is rainforest habitat a 'tropical haven'?".Journal of Zoology.240 (3):427–440.doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1996.tb05296.x.
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