Archaic humansemerged out ofAfrica between 0.5 and 1.8 million years ago. This was followed by theemergence ofmodern humans (Homo sapiens) inEast Africa around 300,000–250,000 years ago. In the 4th millennium BCwritten history arose inAncient Egypt,[1] and later inNubia'sKush, theHorn of Africa'sDʿmt, andIfrikiya'sCarthage.[2] Between around 3000 BCE and 500 CE, theBantu expansion swept from north-westernCentral Africa (modern dayCameroon) across much of Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa, displacing or absorbing groups such as theKhoisan andPygmies. Theoral word is revered in most African societies, and history has generally been recorded viaoral tradition. This has ledanthropologists to term them "oral civilisations", contrasted with "literate civilisations" which pride the written word.[a][5]: 142–143 Traditions were crafted utilising various sources from the community, performed, and passed down through generations.
Many kingdoms and empires came and went in allregions of the continent. Most states were created through conquest or the borrowing and assimilation of ideas andinstitutions, while some developed through internal, largely isolated development.[6] SomeAfrican empires and kingdoms include:
From 1870 to 1914, driven by the great force and hunger of theSecond Industrial Revolution, Europeancolonisation of Africa developed rapidly, as the major European powers partitioned the continent in the 1884Berlin Conference, from one-tenth of the continent being under European imperial control to over nine-tenths in theScramble for Africa.[18][19] European colonialism hadsignificant impacts on Africa's societies, and colonies were maintained for the purpose of economic exploitation of human andnatural resources.Colonial histories were written under the pretence ofwhite supremacism, with Africans consideredracially inferior and their viewpoint ignored. Oral sources were deprecated and dismissed by most historians, who claimed that Africa had no history. Pre-colonial Christian states include Ethiopia, Makuria, and Kongo. Widespread conversion toChristianity occurred under European rule in southern West Africa, Central Africa, and Southern Africa due to efficaciousmissions, as peoplesyncretised Christianity with theirlocal beliefs.[20]
Therise of nationalism facilitated struggles for independence in many parts of the continent, and, with a weakened Europe after theSecond World War, waves ofdecolonisation took place. This culminated in the 1960Year of Africa and the establishment of theOrganisation of African Unity in 1963 (the predecessor to theAfrican Union), with countries deciding to keep their colonial borders.[21]Traditional power structures, which had been incorporated into the colonial regimes, remained partly in place in many parts of Africa, and their roles, powers, and influence vary greatly. Political decolonisation was mirrored by a movement to decoloniseAfrican historiography by incorporating oral sources into a multidisciplinary approach, culminating inUNESCO publishing theGeneral History of Africa from 1981. Many countries have undergone the triumph and defeat of nationalistic fervour, and continue to face challenges such as internal conflict,neocolonialism, andclimate change.
In accordance withAfrican cosmology, African historical consciousness viewed historical change and continuity, order and purpose within the framework of human and their environment, the gods, and their ancestors, and they believed themself part of aholistic spiritual entity.[22] In African societies, the historical process is largely acommunal one, with eyewitness accounts,hearsay, reminiscences, and occasionallyvisions, dreams, and hallucinations crafted into narrativeoral traditions which were performed and transmitted through generations.[23]: 12 [24]: 48 In oral traditions time is sometimesmythical and social, and ancestors were considered historical actors.[c][24]: 43–53 Mind and memory shapes traditions, as events are condensed over time and crystallise intoclichés.[25]: 11 Oral tradition can beexoteric oresoteric. It speaks to people according to their understanding, unveiling itself in accordance with their aptitudes.[26]: 168 InAfrican epistemology, the epistemic subject "experiences the epistemic object in a sensuous, emotive, intuitive, abstractive understanding, rather than through abstraction alone, as is the case inWestern epistemology" to arrive at a "complete knowledge", and as such oral traditions,music,proverbs, and the like were used in the preservation and transmission of knowledge.[27]
The first knownhominids evolved in Africa. According topaleontology, the early hominids' skull anatomy was similar to that of thegorilla and thechimpanzee,great apes that also evolved in Africa, but the hominids had adopted abipedal locomotion which freed their hands. This gave them a crucial advantage, enabling them to live in both forested areas and on the opensavanna at a time when Africa was drying up and the savanna was encroaching on forested areas. This would have occurred 10 to 5 million years ago, but these claims are controversial because biologists and genetics have humans appearing around the last 70 thousand to 200 thousand years.[28]
Evidence of a variety of behaviors indicative ofBehavioral modernity date to the AfricanMiddle Stone Age, associated with earlyHomo sapiens and their emergence. Abstract imagery, widened subsistence strategies, and other "modern" behaviors have been discovered from that period in Africa, especially South, North, and East Africa.
TheBlombos Cave site in South Africa, for example, is famous for rectangular slabs ofochre engraved withgeometric designs. Using multiple dating techniques, the site was confirmed to be around 77,000 and 100–75,000 years old.[37][38] Ostrich egg shell containers engraved with geometric designs dating to 60,000 years ago were found atDiepkloof, South Africa.[39] Beads and other personal ornamentation have been found from Morocco which might be as much as 130,000 years old; as well, the Cave of Hearths in South Africa has yielded a number of beads dating from significantly prior to 50,000 years ago,[40] and shell beads dating to about 75,000 years ago have been found at Blombos Cave, South Africa.[41][42][43]
Around 65–50,000 years ago, the species' expansionout of Africa launched the colonization of the planet by modern human beings.[44][45][46][47] By 10,000 BC,Homo sapiens had spread to most corners ofAfro-Eurasia. Their dispersals are traced by linguistic, cultural andgenetic evidence.[48][49][50] Eurasian back-migrations, specificallyWest-Eurasian backflow, started in the earlyHolocene or already earlier in thePaleolithic period, sometimes between 30 and 15,000 years ago, followed by pre-Neolithic andNeolithic migration waves from the Middle East, mostly affecting Northern Africa, the Horn of Africa, and wider regions of the Sahel zone and East Africa.[51]
Pre-Neolithic and Neolithic migration events in Africa.[51]
Around 16,000 BC, from theRed Sea Hills to the northernEthiopian Highlands, nuts, grasses and tubers were being collected for food. By 13,000 to 11,000 BC, people began collecting wild grains. This spread toWestern Asia, which domesticated its wild grains,wheat andbarley. Between 10,000 and 8,000 BC,Northeast Africa was cultivating wheat and barley and raising sheep and cattle from Southwest Asia.
A wet climatic phase in Africa turned the Ethiopian Highlands into a mountain forest.Omotic speakers domesticatedenset around 6,500–5,500 BC. Around 7,000 BC, the settlers of the Ethiopian highlands domesticateddonkeys, and by 4,000 BC domesticated donkeys had spread to Southwest Asia.Cushitic speakers, partially turning away from cattle herding, domesticatedteff andfinger millet between 5,500 and 3,500 BC.[56]
During the 11th millenniumBP, pottery was independently invented in Africa, with the earliest pottery there dating to about 9,400 BC from central Mali.[57] It soon spread throughout the southernSahara andSahel.[58] In thesteppes andsavannahs of the Sahara and Sahel in Northern West Africa, theNilo-Saharan speakers andMandé peoples started to collect and domesticate wild millet,African rice andsorghum between 8,000 and 6,000 BC. Later,gourds,watermelons,castor beans, andcotton were also collected and domesticated. The people started capturing wild cattle and holding them in circular thorn hedges, resulting indomestication.[59]
They also started makingpottery and built stone settlements (e.g.,Tichitt,Oualata).Fishing, using bone-tippedharpoons, became a major activity in the numerous streams and lakes formed from the increased rains.[60] Mande peoples have been credited with the independent development of agriculture about 4,000–3,000 BC.[61]
9th-century bronze staff head in form of a coiled snake,Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria
Evidence of the early smelting of metals – lead,copper, andbronze – dates from the fourth millennium BC.[62]
Egyptians smelted copper during thepredynastic period, and bronze came into use after 3,000 BC at the latest[63] in Egypt and Nubia. Nubia became a major source of copper as well as ofgold.[64] The use of gold andsilver in Egypt dates back to the predynastic period.[65][66]
In theAïr Mountains of present-dayNiger people smelted copper independently of developments in the Nile valley between 3,000 and 2,500 BC. They used a process unique to the region, suggesting that the technology was not brought in from outside; it became more mature by about 1,500 BC.[66]
By the 1st millennium BCiron working had reachedNorthwestern Africa, Egypt, and Nubia.[67] Zangato and Holl document evidence of iron-smelting in theCentral African Republic and Cameroon that may date back to 3,000 to 2,500 BC.[68]Assyrians using iron weapons pushed Nubians out of Egypt in 670 BC, after which the use of iron became widespread in the Nile valley.[69]
The theory thatiron spread toSub-Saharan Africa via the Nubian city ofMeroe[70] is no longer widely accepted, and some researchers believe that sub-Saharan Africans invented iron metallurgy independently.Metalworking in West Africa has been dated as early as 2,500 BC at Egaro west of theTermit in Niger, and iron working was practiced there by 1,500 BC.[71] Iron smelting has been dated to 2,000 BC in southeastNigeria.[72]Central Africa provides possible evidence of iron working as early as the 3rd millennium BC.[73] Iron smelting developed in the area betweenLake Chad and theAfrican Great Lakes between 1,000 and 600 BC, and in West Africa around 2,000 BC, long before the technology reached Egypt. Before 500 BC, theNok culture in theJos Plateau was already smelting iron.[74][75][76][77][78][79] Archaeological sites containing iron-smelting furnaces and slag have been excavated at sites in theNsukka region of southeast Nigeria inIgboland: dating to 2,000 BC at the site ofLejja (Eze-Uzomaka 2009)[72][80] and to 750 BC and at the site ofOpi (Holl 2009).[80] The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has also yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896–773 BC and 907–796 BC respectively.[79]
Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (c. 3150 BC to 30 BC)
From around 3,500 BCE, a coalition ofHorus-worshippingnomes in the westernNile Delta conquered theAndjety-worshipping nomes of the east to formLower Egypt, whilstSet-worshipping nomes in the south coalesced to formUpper Egypt.[81]: 62–63 Egypt was first united whenNarmer ofUpper Egypt conqueredLower Egypt, giving rise to the1st and2nd dynasties of Egypt whose efforts presumably consisted of conquest and consolidation, with unification completed by the3rd dynasty to form theOld Kingdom of Egypt in 2,686 BCE.[81]: 63 TheKingdom of Kerma emerged around this time to become the dominant force in Nubia, controlling an area as large as Egypt between the 1st and 4thcataracts of the Nile, with Egyptian records speaking of its rich and populous agricultural regions.[82][83]
TheHyksos, a militaristic people fromPalestine, capitalised on this fragmentation and conquered Lower Egypt, establishing the15th dynasty of Egypt, whilstKerma coordinated invasions deep into Egypt to reach its greatest extent, looting royal statues and monuments.[84] A rival power base developed inThebes withAhmose I of the18th dynasty eventually expelling theHyksos from Egypt, forming theNew Kingdom in 1,550 BCE. Utilising the military technology theHyksos had brought, they conducted numerous campaigns to conquer theLevant from theCanaanites,Amorites,Hittites, andMitanni, and extinguishKerma, incorporatingNubia into the empire, sending theEgyptian empire into its golden age.[81]: 73 Internal struggles, drought and famine, and invasions by aconfederation of seafaring peoples, contributed to theNew Kingdom's collapse in 1,069 BCE, ushering in theThird Intermediate Period which saw Egypt fractured into many pieces amid widespread turmoil.[81]: 76–77
Egypt's disintegration liberated the more EgyptianizedKingdom of Kush in Nubia, and later in the 8th century BCE the Kushite kingKashta would expand his power and influence by manoeuvring his daughter into a position of power inUpper Egypt, paving the way for his successorPiye to conquerLower Egypt and form theKushite Empire. The Kushites assimilated further into Egyptian society by reaffirmingAncient Egyptian religious traditions, and culture, while introducing some unique aspects of Kushite culture and overseeing arevival in pyramid-building. After a century of rule they wereforcibly driven out of Egypt by theAssyrians as reprisal for the Kushites agitating peoples within theAssyrian Empire in an attempt to gain a foothold in the region.[85] The Assyrians installed apuppet dynasty which later gained independence and once moreunified Egypt, with Upper Egypt becoming a rich agricultural region whose produce Lower Egypt then sold and traded.[81]: 77
In 525 BCE Egypt was conquered by the expansionistAchaemenids, however later regained independence in 404 BCE until 343 BCE when it was re-annexed by theAchaemenid Empire. Persian rule in Egypt ended with the defeat of the Achaemenids byAlexander the Great in 332 BCE, marking the beginning of Hellenistic rule by the MacedonianPtolemaic dynasty in Egypt. The Hellenistic rulers, seeking legitimacy from their Egyptian subjects, gradually Egyptianized and participated inEgyptian religious life.[86]: 119 Following theSyrian Wars with theSeleucid Empire, thePtolemaic Kingdom lost its holdings outside Africa, but expanded its territory by conqueringCyrenaica from its respective tribes, and subjugatedKush.
Beginning in the mid second century BCE, dynastic strife and a series of foreign wars weakened the kingdom, and it became increasingly reliant on theRoman Republic. UnderCleopatra VII, who sought to restore Ptolemaic power, Egypt became entangled in aRoman civil war, which ultimately led to itsconquest by Rome in 30 BCE. TheCrisis of the Third Century in theRoman Empire freed the Levantine city state ofPalmyra whoconquered Egypt, however their rule lasted only a few years before Egypt was reintegrated into theRoman Empire. In the midst of this,Kush regained total independence from Egypt, and they would persist as a major regional power until, having been weakened from internal rebellion amid worsening climatic conditions, invasions by both theAksumites and theNoba caused their disintegration intoMakuria,Alodia, andNobatia in the 5th century CE. The Romans managed tohold on to Egypt for the rest of the ancient period.
In theHorn of Africa there was theLand of Punt, a kingdom on theRed Sea, likely located in modern-dayEritrea or northernSomaliland.[87] The Ancient Egyptians initially traded via middle-men with Punt until in 2,350 BCE when they established direct relations. They would become close trading partners for over a millennium, with Punt exchanginggold, aromaticresins,blackwood,ebony,ivory and wild animals. Towards the end of the ancient period, northernEthiopia andEritrea bore the Kingdom ofD'mt beginning in 980 BCE, whose people developed irrigation schemes, usedploughs, grewmillet, and madeiron tools and weapons. In modern-daySomalia andDjibouti there was theMacrobian Kingdom, with archaeological discoveries indicating the possibility of other unknown sophisticated civilisations at this time.[88][89]
Carthage's political institutions received rare praise from both Greeks and Romans, with its constitution and aristocratic council providing stability, with birth and wealth paramount for election.[96]: 251–253 In 264 BCE theFirst Punic War began when Carthage came into conflict with the expansionaryRoman Republic on the island ofSicily, leading to what has been described as the greatestnaval war of antiquity, causing heavy casualties on both sides, but ending in Carthage's eventual defeat and loss of Sicily.[96]: 255–256 TheSecond Punic War broke out when the Romans opportunistically tookSardinia andCorsica whilst the Carthaginians were putting down a ferociousLibyan revolt, with Carthage initially experiencing considerable success followingHannibal's infamouscrossing of the alps into northernItaly. In a 14 year long campaign Hannibal's forces conquered much ofmainland Italy, only being recalled after the Romans conducted a bold naval invasion of theCarthaginian homeland and then defeated him inclimactic battle in 202 BCE.[96]: 256–257
Carthage was forced to give up their fleet, and the subsequent collapse of their empire would produce two further polities in the Maghreb;Numidia, a polity made up of twoNumidian tribal federations until theMassylii conquered theMasaesyli, and assisted the Romans in the Second Punic War;Mauretania, aMauritribal kingdom, home of the legendaryKing Atlas; and various tribes such asGaramantes,Musulamii, andBavares. TheThird Punic War would result in Carthage's total defeat in 146 BCE and theRomans established the province ofAfrica, withNumidia assuming control of many of Carthage's African ports. Towards the end of the 2nd century BCEMauretania fought alongside Numidia'sJugurtha in theJugurthine War against the Romans after he had usurped the Numidian throne from a Roman ally. Together they inflicted heavy casualties that quaked theRoman Senate, with the war only ending inconclusively when Mauretania'sBocchus I sold out theJugurtha to the Romans.[96]: 258
At the turn of the millennium they both would face the same fate as Carthage and be conquered by the Romans who establishedMauretania andNumidia as provinces of their empire, whilstMusulamii, led byTacfarinas, andGaramantes were eventually defeated in war in the 1st century CE however weren't conquered.[97]: 261–262 In the 5th century CE theVandals conquered north Africa precipitating thefall of Rome. Swathes ofindigenous peoples would regain self-governance in theMauro-Roman Kingdom and its numerous successor polities in the Maghreb, namely the kingdoms ofOuarsenis,Aurès, andAltava. TheVandals ruledIfriqiya for a century untilByzantine's reconquest in the early 6th century CE. The Byzantines and the Berber kingdoms fought minor inconsequential conflicts, such as in the case ofGarmul, however largely coexisted.[97]: 284 Further inland to the ByzantineExarchate of Africa were theSanhaja in modern-dayAlgeria, a broad grouping of three groupings oftribal confederations, one of which is theMasmuda grouping in modern-dayMorocco, along with the nomadicZenata; their composite tribes would later go onto shape much of North African history.
In the westernSahel the rise of settled communities occurred largely as a result of the domestication ofmillet and ofsorghum. Archaeology points to sizable urban populations in West Africa beginning in the 4th millennium BCE, which had crucially developediron metallurgy by 1,200 BCE, in bothsmelting andforging for tools and weapons.[98] Extensive east-west belts ofdeserts,grasslands, andforests from north to south were crucial in the moulding of their respective societies and meant that prior to the accession oftrans-Saharan trade routes, symbiotic trade relations developed in response to the opportunities afforded by north–south diversity in ecosystems,[99]: 79–80 tradingmeats,copper,iron,salt, andgold.
Towards the end of the 3rd century CE, awet period in the Sahel opened areas for human habitation and exploitation which had not been habitable for the better part of a millennium. Based onlarge tumuli scattered across West Africa dating to this period, it has been proposed that there were several contemporaneous kingdoms which have unfortunately been lost to history.[103][100] Some important polities likely founded in the early-to-middle 1st millennium who did make it into the historical record includeMema,Takrur,Silla, andWagadu (commonly called the Ghana Empire).
Soninketraditions mention four previous foundings ofWagadu, and hold that the final founding of Wagadu occurred after their first king did a deal withBida, a serpent deity who was guarding a well, to sacrifice one maiden a year in exchange for assurance regarding plenty of rainfall and gold supply.[104] Soninke tradition portrays early Ghana as warlike, with horse-mounted warriors key to increasing its territory and population, although details of their expansion are extremely scarce.[105]
During the 1st millennium BCE the Bantu spread further from theGreat Lakes to Southern and East Africa. One early movement headed south to the upperZambezi basin in the 2nd century BCE. The Bantu then split westward to the savannahs of present-dayAngola and eastward intoMalawi,Zambia, andZimbabwe in the 1st century CE, forming theGokomere culture in the 5th century CE.[115] The second thrust from the Great Lakes was eastward, also in the 1st century AD, expanding toKenya,Tanzania, and theSwahili coast.
The eastern Bantu group would eventually meet with the southern migrants from the Great Lakes in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe and both groups continued southward, with eastern groups continuing toMozambique and reachingMaputo in the 2nd century CE. Further to the south, settlements of Bantu peoples who were iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen were well established south of theLimpopo River by the 4th century CE, displacing and assimilating theKhoisan.
By theChari River south ofLake Chad theSao civilisation flourished for over a millennium beginning in the 6th century BCE, in territory that later became part of present-dayCameroon andChad. Sao artifacts show that they were skilled workers inbronze,copper, andiron,[121]: 19 with finds including bronze sculptures, terracotta statues of human and animal figures, coins, funerary urns, household utensils, jewellery, highly decorated pottery, and spears.[121]: 19 [122]: 1051 Nearby, aroundLake Ejagham in south-westCameroon, theEkoi civilisation rose circa 2nd century CE, and are most notable for constructing theIkom monoliths and developing theNsibidi script.[123]
The early 7th century saw theinception of Islam and the beginning of theArab conquests intent on converting peoples toIslam andmonotheism.[124]: 56 The nascentRashidun Caliphate won a series of crucial victories and expanded rapidly, forcing theByzantines to evacuate Syria. WithByzantine regional presence shattered, Egypt was quickly conquered by 642, with theEgyptian Copts odious ofByzantine rule generally putting up little resistance. The Muslims' attention then turned west to the Maghreb where theExarchate of Africa had declared independence from Constantinople underGregory the Patrician. The Muslims conqueredIfriqiya and in 647 defeated and killed Gregory and his army decisively inbattle. TheBerbers of the Maghreb proposed payment of annual tribute, which the Muslims, not wishing to annex the territory, accepted. After abrief civil war in the Muslim empire, theRashidun were supplanted by theUmayyad dynasty in 661 and the capital moved fromMedina toDamascus.[125]: 47–48
With intentions to expand further in all directions, the Muslims returned to the Maghreb to find theByzantines had reinforced theExarchate and allied with the BerberKingdom of Altava underKusaila, who was approached prior to battle and convinced to convert to Islam. Initially having become neutral, Kusaila objected to integration into the empire and in 683 destroyed the poorly supplied Arab army and conquered the newly-foundKairouan, causing an epiphany among the Berber that this conflict was not just against the Byzantines. The Arabs returned and defeated Kusaila andAltava in 690, and, after a set-back, expelled theByzantines from North Africa. To the west,Kahina of theKingdom of the Aurès declared opposition to the Arab invasion and repelled their armies, securing her position as the uncontested ruler of the Maghreb for five years. The Arabs received reinforcements and in 701 Kahina was killed and thekingdom defeated. They completed their conquest of the rest of the Maghreb, with large swathes of Berbers embracing Islam, and the combined Arab and Berber armies would use this territory as a springboardinto Iberia to expand the Muslim empire further.[125]: 47–48
Large numbers ofBerber andCoptic people willingly converted to Islam, and followers ofAbrahamic religions ("People of the Book") constituting theDhimmi class were permitted to practice their religion and exempted from military service in exchange for atax, which was improperly extended to include converts.[126]: 247 Followers oftraditional Berber religion, which were mostly those of tribal confederations in the interior, were violently oppressed and often given the ultimatum to convert to Islam or face captivity or enslavement.[125]: 46 Converted natives were permitted to participate in the governing of the Muslim empire in order to quell the enormous administrative problems owing to the Arabs' lack of experience governing and rapid expansion.[125]: 49 Unorthodox sects such as theKharijite,Ibadi,Isma'ili,Nukkarite andSufrite found fertile soil among many Berbers dissatisfied with the oppressiveUmayyad regime, with religion being utilised as a political tool to foster organisation.[124]: 64 In the 740s theBerber Revolt rocked the caliphate and the Berbers took control over the Maghreb, whilst revolts inIfriqiya were suppressed.
TheAbbasid dynasty came to powervia revolution in 750 and attempted to reconfigure the caliphate to be multi-ethnic rather than Arab exclusive, however this wasn't enough to prevent gradual disintegration on its peripheries. Various short-lived native dynasties would form states such as theBarghawata ofMasmuda, theIfranid dynasty, and theMidrarid dynasty, both from theZenata. TheIdrisid dynasty would come to rule most of modern-dayMorocco with the support of theMasmuda, whilst the growingIbadi movement among theZenata culminated in theRustamid Imamate, centred onTahert, modern-dayAlgeria.[126]: 254 At the turn of the 9th century theAbbasids' sphere of influence would degrade further with theAghlabids controllingIfriqiya under only nominalAbbasid rule and in 868 when theTulunids wrestled the independence of Egypt for four decades before again coming underAbbasid control.[127]: 172, 260 Late in the 9th century, arevolt by East African slaves in theAbbasid's homeland ofIraq diverted its resources away from its other territories, devastating important ports in thePersian Gulf, and was eventually put down after decades of violence, resulting in between 300,000 and 2,500,000 dead.[128][129]: 714
To the east, theFatimids saw their empire start to collapse in 1061, beginning with the loss of the holy cities to theSharifate of Mecca and exacerbated by rebellion inCairo. TheSeljuk Turks, who saw themselves as the guardian of theAbbasid Caliphate, capitalised and conquered much of their territories in the east, however theFatimids repelled them from encroaching on Egypt. Amid the Christians'First Crusade against theSeljuks, theFatimids opportunistically took backJerusalem, but then lost it again to the Christians indecisive defeat. TheFatimids' authority collapsed due to intense internal struggle in political rivalries and religious divisions, amidChristian invasions of Egypt, creating apower vacuum in North Africa. TheZengid dynasty, nominally under Seljuksuzerainty, invaded on the pretext of defending Egypt from the Christians, and usurped the position ofvizier in the caliphate.[132]: 186–189
TheKilwa Chronicle, supposedly based onoral tradition, holds that aPersian prince fromShiraz arrived and acquired the island of Kilwa from the local inhabitants, before quarrel with the Bantu king led to the severing Kilwa'sland bridge to the mainland. Settlements in northern Madagascar such asMahilaka [de],Irodo, andIharana also engaged in the trade, attractingArab immigration.[148] Bantu migrated to Madagascar and the Comoros from the 9th century, whenzebu were first brought. From the 10th centuryKilwa expanded its influence, coming to challenge the dominance ofSomalianMogadishu located to its north, however details ofKilwa's rise remain scarce.[citation needed] In the late 12th centuryKilwa wrestled control ofSofala in the south, a key trading city linking toGreat Zimbabwe in the interior and famous for its Zimbabwean gold, which was substantial in the usurpation ofMogadishu's hegemony, while also conqueringPemba andZanzibar.[citation needed]Kilwa's administration consisted of representatives who ranged from governing their assigned cities to fulfilling the role of ambassador in the more powerful ones.[citation needed] Meanwhile, thePate Chronicle [fr] hasPate conqueringShanga,Faza, and prosperousManda, and was at one time led by the popularFumo Liyongo.[154] The islands ofPemba,Zanzibar,Lamu,Mafia and theComoros were further settled byShirazi and grew in importance due to their geographical positions for trade.
By 1100, all regions of Madagascar were inhabited, although the total population remained small.[153]: 48 Societies organised at the behest ofhasina, which later evolved to embody kingship, and competed with one another over theisland's estuaries, with oral histories describing bloody clashes and earlier settlers often pushed along the coast or inland.[153]: 43, 52–53 An Arab geographer wrote in 1224 that the island consisted of a great many towns and kingdoms, with kings making war on each other.[153]: 51–52 Assisted by climate change, the peoples gradually transformed the island fromdense forest to grassland for cultivation and zebupastoralism.[153]: 71 From the 13th centuryMuslim settlers arrived, integrating into the respective societies, and held high status owing to Islamic trading networks.
The 7th to 13th centuries in West Africa were a period of relatively abundant rainfall that saw the explosive growth of trade, particularly across theSahara desert, and the flourishing of numerous important states.[155] The introduction of thecamel to the western Sahel was a watershed moment, allowing more merchandise to move more easily.[105] These desert-side states are the first to appear in the written record, with Arab and Berber merchants from North Africa leaving descriptions of their power and wealth.[156] Nevertheless, there remain big gaps in the historical record, and many details are speculative and/or based on much later traditions.
One of the most powerful and well known of these states wasWagadu, commonly called the Ghana Empire, likely the dominant player in the western Sahel from the 6th century onwards.[157] Wagadu was the most powerful of a constellation of states stretching fromTakrur on theSenegal river valley toMema in the Niger valley, all of whom were subservient to Ghana at least some of the time.[158] Like Wagadu, theGao Empire which rose in the 7th century had at least seven kingdoms accepting their suzerainty. BothGao andKumbi Saleh (capital of Wagadu) grew fabulously rich through thetrans-Saharan trade routes linking these cities withTadmekka,Kairouan, andSijilmassa inNorth Africa along which flowed trade in salt, gold, slaves, and more.[159][160][158][105]
Map of the westernSahel andSudan (northern West Africa) c. 1200. (Songhai isGao) Kingdoms in this era were centred around cities and cores, with variations of influence radiating out from these points, borders here are estimates.
The arrival of Islam in West Africa had seismic consequences for the history of the entire region. By the 10th century, the king ofGao had converted, possibly toIbadi Islam.[161] In 1035 kingWar Jabi of Takrur became the first ruler to adopt Sunni Islam.[162] The rise of theAlmoravidSanhaja in the 1050s, perhaps inspired and supported by Muslims in Takrur, pushed the leaders of Sahelian states to institutionalize Islam in the subsequent decades.[163] Historians debate whether the Almoravids conquered Wagadu or merely dominated them politically but not militarily. In any case the period saw significant upheaval and a shift in trade patterns as previously important cities likeAwdaghost andTadmekka fell victim to the Almoravids and their allies.[d][165] In the confusion, some vassals achieved independence such asMema,Sosso, andDiarra/Diafunu, with the last two being especially powerful.[157] Despite Wagadu regaining full independence and power throughout the 12th century, this could not counteract the worsening climate and shifts in trade south and east. Around the turn of the 13th century, theSosso Empire united the region and conquered a weakenedGhana from its south, spurring large-scale Soninke out-migration.[e][167]
In addition to campaigns in the north to subdueDiafunu, Mali established suzerainty over the highlands ofFouta Djallon.[171] After being insulted by theWolof king ofKita, Sundiata sentTiramakhan Traore west at the head of a large army, ultimately bringing most ofSenegambia under the empire's control and, after defeating theBainuk king, established dozens of Mandinka vassal kingdoms in theGambia andCasamance basins, a region known asKaabu.[172]
While the precise timeline is unknown, archaeological evidence points to settlements inIle-Ife being one of the earliest south of the Niger river, dating back as early as the 10th to 6th century BCE. The city gradually transitioned into a more urban center around the 4th to 7th centuries CE. By the 8th century, a powerful city-state had formed,[173] laying the foundation for the eventual rise of theIfe Empire (circa 1200–1420).[174]Under figures like the now defied figures such asOduduwa, revered as the first divine king of the Yoruba, the Ife Empire grew. Ile-Ife, its capital, rose to prominence, its influence extending across a vast swathe of what is now southwestern Nigeria.
The period between 1200 and 1400 is often referred to as the "golden age" of Ile-Ife, marked by exceptional artistic production, economic prosperity, and urban development. The city's artisans excelled in crafting exquisite sculptures from bronze, terracotta, and stone. These works, renowned for their naturalism and technical mastery, were not only objects of aesthetic appreciation but also likely held religious significance, potentially reflecting the cosmology and belief systems of the Ife people.[175]
This artistic tradition coincided with Ile-Ife's role as a major commercial hub. The Ife Empire's strategic location facilitated its participation in extensive trade networks that spanned West Africa. Of note is the evidence of a thriving glass bead industry in Ile-Ife. Archaeological excavations have unearthed numerous glass beads, indicating local production and pointing to the existence of specialized knowledge and technology. These beads, particularly thedichroic beads known for their iridescent qualities, were highly sought-after trade items, found as far afield as theSahel region, demonstrating the far-reaching commercial connections of the Ife Empire.[174]
In northern modern-dayNigeria,Hausa tradition holds thatBayajidda came toDaura in the 9th century, and his descendants founded thekingdoms ofDaura,Kano,Rano,Katsina,Gobir,Zazzau, andBiram in the 10th, 11th, and 12th centuries, with his bastard descendants foundingvarious others.[176] While the historical validity of these legends is unknowable, the Arab geographeral-Yaqubi, writing in 872/873 CE (AH 259), describes a kingdom called "HBShH" with a city named "ThBYR" located between the Niger and theKanem–Bornu Empire which may refer to Hausa.[177]
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Following the Bantu migrations, a period of state and class formation began circa 700 with four centres; one in the west aroundPool Malebo, one south around thehighlands of Angola, a third north-central aroundLake Mai-Ndombe, and a fourth in the far southeast in theUpemba Depression.[178]: 17–18
In the Upemba Depression social stratification and governance began to form after the 10th century based on villages.[178]: 18–19
By the 4th century,Bantu peoples had established farming villages south of theZambezi River. TheSan, having inhabited the region for around 100,000 years,[f] were driven off their ancestral lands or incorporated by Bantu speaking groups.[110]: 11–12 The Zambezi Plateau came to be dotted with the agricultural chiefdoms of theZhizo people andLeopard's Kopje people, in which cattle was the primary identifier of wealth. External trade began around the 7th century, primarily exporting gold and ivory.[110]: 14 Around 900, motivated by theivory trade, some Zhizo moved south to settle theLimpopo-Shashe Basin. Their capital and most populated settlement wasSchroda, and via the coastalSwahili city-stateChibuene they engaged in theIndian Ocean trade.[180]: 10–14
The 10th century saw increased global demand for gold as various Muslim, European, and Indian states began issuing gold coinage.[181] Around 1000, some Leopard's Kopje people moved south to settleBambandyanalo (known as K2), as the Zhizo moved west to settleToutswe in modern-day Botswana. Some scholars believe their relations to have been hostile, however others insist they were more complex, both socially and politically.[182] The San, who were believed to have closer connections to the old spirits of the land, were often turned to by other societies forrainmaking. The community at K2 chose the San rather than the Zhizo, their political rivals, because the San did not believe in ancestors, and by not acknowledging the Zhizo's ancestors they would not be held to ransom by them.[181]
Northwest, the community atMapela Hill had possibly developedsacral kingship by the 11th century.[183][184] To the east, an early settlement wasGumanye.[185]Great Zimbabwe was founded around 1000 AD,[186] and construction on the city's iconicdry-stone walls began in the 11th century. From the 12th century Great Zimbabwe wrestled with other settlements, such asChivowa, for economic and political dominance in theSouthern Zambezi Escarpment.[187] Further south by 1200, K2 had a population of 1500.[180]: 26–29 The large wealth generated by theIndian Ocean trade created unprecedented inequalities, evolving over time from a society based on social ranking to one based onsocial classes. K2's spatial arrangement became unsuited to this development.[180]: 30
Amid a harsh drought which likely troubled the society,[181] royal elites moved the capital toMapungubwe Hill and settled its flat-topped summit around 1220, while most people settled below, surrounding the sacred leader in a protective circle. Mapungubwe Hill became the sole rainmaking hill, and its habitation by the leader emphasised a link between himself and rainmaking, which was substantial in the development ofsacral kingship.[180]: 32–34 The first king had their palace on the western part of the hill, and is called "Shiriyadenga" inVenda oral traditions.[189] His entourage included soldiers andpraise singers, along with musicians who playedmbiras andxylophones.The state likely covered 30,000 km2 (12,000 square miles). They traded locally withToutswe andEiland among others. High global demand saw gold and ivory exported to theIndian Ocean trade viaSofala.[181][180]: 38–51 It is unclear to what extent coercion and conflict played in Mapungubwe's growth and dominance due to this being challenging to recognise archaeologically, however the stone walls likely served a defensive purpose, indicating warfare was conventional.[190]
Following the collapse of theAbbasids, theHafsids were briefly recognised as caliphs by thesharifs of Mecca and theMamluks. Throughout the 14th century, theMarinids intermittently occupied theZayyanids several times, and devastated theHafsids in 1347 and 1357. TheMarinids then succumbed to internal division, exacerbated by plague and financial crisis, culminating in the rise of theWattasid dynasty fromZenata in 1472, with theHafsids becoming the dominant power.[191]: 34–43 Throughout the 15th century, theSpanish colonised the Canary Isles in the first example of modernsettler colonialism, causing the genocide of thenative Berber population in the process. To the east, the turn of the 15th century saw theMamluks oppose the expansionistOttomans andTimurids in the Middle East, with plague and famine eroding Mamlukian authority, until internal conflict was reconciled. The following decades saw theMamluks reach their greatest extent with efficacious economic reforms, however the threat of the growingOttomans andPortuguese trading practices in the Indian Ocean posed great challenges to the empire at the turn of the 16th century.
In EthiopiaAmda Seyon I came to the throne in 1314 and conqueredHarla,Gojjam,Hadiya, and cruciallyDamot, withEnnarea splitting from the latter.[194][195] He also campaigned in the north whereBeta Israel had been gaining prominence, and reconquered the TigrayanEnderta Province.[196] In 1321, a religious dispute between Amda Seyon and theMamluk sultan which involved threats to tamper with theNile gaveIfat'sHaqq ad-Din I pretext to invade and execute an Ethiopian envoy. Seven years later, Amda Seyon's forces overwhelmed Ifat's outposts, defeated Ifat's armies and killed Haqq ad-Din, with lack of unity among the Muslims proving fatal.[197]
The Ethiopian emperor raided the Muslim states and made them tributaries.[197] Following this, sultanSabr ad-Din I led arebellion andjihad in 1332 seeking to restore prestige and rule a Muslim Ethiopia, garnering widespread support in the early stages from the Muslim states and even from nomads.[138]: 145 They were defeated by Amda Seyon, ushering in a golden age for theEthiopian Empire.[198] Ethiopia incorporatedIfat,Hadiya,Dawaro,Fatagar, andShewa as one vassal headed by theWalashma dynasty.[197] The Ethiopian emperor ruled the Muslim states bydivide and rule, and had the final say on succession, with various sultans andsheikhs drawn to his court.[138]: 148
Successive sultans rebelled and struggled to shake off Ethiopian vassalage, moving Ifat's capital toAdal in an attempt to escape Ethiopia's sphere of control. To the south-west according to oral traditions, Amda Seyon expanded into theGurage.[196]: 75–76 According to oral traditions, theKingdom of Kaffa was established in 1390 after "ousting a dynasty of 32 kings".[199] In the late 14th century the sultans began to expand eastwards into the decentralised Somali interior.Sa'ad ad-Din II propagated insecurity on Ethiopia's eastern frontier, however was defeated byDawit I. The sultan was repeatedly pursued by the Ethiopian emperor toZeila on the coast and killed in 1415, leaving the formerSultanate of Ifat fully occupied.[138]: 150–154
In 1415Sabr ad-Din III of theWalashma dynasty returned to the region from exile to establish theAdal Sultanate. The Ethiopian armies were defeated, and he and his successors expanded to regain the territory of the former sultanate.Jamal ad-Din II's reign saw a sharp rise in the slave trade, withIndia,Arabia,Hormuz,Hejaz,Egypt,Syria,Greece,Iraq, andPersia reportedly becoming "full of Abyssinian slaves".[196]: 59 In 1445Badlay attempted an invasion into the Ethiopian Highlands, supported byMogadishu, however he was defeated byZara Yaqob, with the successor sultan securing peace between the two states.[138]: 154–156
In the 1440s Ethiopia conquered much of theTigray, placing the land under avassal ruled by theBahr Negus.[139]: 71 Baeda Maryam I campaigned against theDobe'a with the support ofDankalia, resulting in their defeat and incorporation into the empire.[196]: 106–111 In 1471, aHarariemir leading a militant faction seized power inAdal with thesultan retaining a ceremonious role.His successor raided the Ethiopian frontier against the sultan's wishes, and was defeated by the emperors in 1507 and finally in 1517.[138]: 166–167 For the Ethiopians, the end of the 15th century saw a period of conquest and expansion come to close, and one of defence begin.
In 1312Mansa Musa came to power inMali afterhis predecessor had set out on an Atlantic voyage. Musa supposedly spent much of his early campaign preparing for his infamoushajj or pilgrimage toMecca. Between 1324 and 1325 his entourage of over 10,000, and hundreds of camels, all carrying around 12 tonnes of gold in total,[201][202] travelled 2700 miles, giving gifts to the poor along the way, and fostered good relations with theMamluk sultan, garnering widespread attention in theMuslim world. On Musa's return, his general reasserted dominance overGao and he commissioned a large construction program, buildingmosques andmadrasas, with Timbuktu becoming a centre for trade andIslamic scholarship, however Musa features comparatively less than his predecessors inMandinkaoral traditions than in modern histories.[169]: 147–152 DespiteMali's fame being attributed to its riches in gold, its prosperous economy was based onarable andpastoral farming, as well as crafts, and they traded commonly with theAkan,Dyula, and withBenin,Ife, andNri in theforest regions.[169]: 164–171
Amid aMalian mansa's attempt to coerce the empire back into financial shape after the lacklustre premiership ofhis predecessor, Mali's northwestern-most province broke away to form theJolof Empire and theSerer kingdoms.Wolof tradition holds that the empire was founded by the wiseNdiadiane Ndiaye, and it later absorbed neighbouring kingdoms to form a confederacy of the Wolof kingdoms ofJolof,Cayor,Baol, andWaalo, and the Serer kingdoms ofSine andSaloum. InMali after the death ofMusa II in 1387, vicious conflict ensued within theKeita dynasty. In the 14th centuryYatenga attacked and sackedTimbuktu andOualata.[124]: 80 The internal conflict weakenedMali's central authority. This provided an opportunity for the previously subduedTuareg tribal confederations in the Sahara to rebel. Over the next few decades they captured the main trading cities of Timbuktu, Oualata,Nema, and possiblyGao, with some tribes forming the north-easternSultanate of Agadez, and with them all usurping Mali's dominance over thetrans-Saharan trade.[203]: 174
By the 13th century there were three main confederations of states in the western Congo Basin aroundPool Malebo. TheSeven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza, considered to be the oldest and most powerful, likely includedNsundi,Mbata,Mpangu, and possiblyKundi andOkanga. South of these wasMpemba which stretched from its capital in northern Angola 200 km north to theCongo River. It included various kingdoms such asMpemba Kasi, its northernmost and remotest component, andVunda. To its west across theCongo River was a confederation of three small states;Vungu (its leader),Kakongo, andNgoyo.[178]: 24–25
The formation of theKingdom of Kongo began in the late 13th century.Kongo oral traditions hold thatNtinu Wene (lit. "King of the Kingdom") crossed the Congo River fromVungu to conquerMpemba Kasi, known as the "Mother of Kongo".[g] The first kings ruled fromNsi a Kwilu, a valley and old religious centre, which produced iron and steel, and linked the copper andtextile-producing north to the south.[178]: 25–26 Around the 1350sNimi Nzima established an alliance with the rulers ofMbata, who were looking to break away from theSeven Kingdoms, and agreed to secure each other's dynasties, making them known as the "Grandfather of Kongo".[178]: 27–29
Tradition holds that Nimi Nzima's son,Lukeni lua Nimi, wishing to aggrandise himself, built a fortress and blocked and taxed commerce. One day his pregnant aunt refused to pay the toll, and in a rage he killed her. While reprehensible, his action won him followers due to his determination and valour and allowed him to embark on conquests. To the south the market town ofMpangala, itself a sub unit ofVunda, was absorbed, with Vunda also styled as a Grandfather. This weakening of theMpemba confederation precipitated its conquest and integration into the Kingdom of Kongo.[178]: 27–29 Lukeni lua Nimi also conqueredKabunga in the west, whose leaders were regional religious leaders, not dissimilar frompopes. From thereSoyo andMbamba were conquered.[178]: 29–30
The power and resources gained from these conquests allowed Kongo to expand north intoNsundi, which had multiple sub-units. Traditionally, a governor on Nsundi's western border forebode entry until they had fought a symbolic battle. Kongo conquered Nsundi and delegated it to a royal governor, who greatly expanded the territory, conqueringNsanga andMasinga.[178]: 29–30 Northeast,Teke oral tradition holds thatMabiala Mantsi united the Bateke tribes, centralised his governance, and expanded using militaristic and diplomatic skill.[205] Kongo's conquests eastward brought it into conflict with the formidableTeke Kingdom which halted their expansion. This expansion had primarily been done by allying and co-opting polities. By the late 15th century, Kongo had developed a new administrative system which would increase its centralisation, and after integratingVunda, they set about conquering these polities and converting them into royal provinces.[178]: 30
Small confederations, likeKisama, often put up spirited and successful resistance to either internal consolidation by aggressive components, or external conquest and integration.[178]: 23 To the south around thehighlands of Angola theAmbundu kingdoms ofNdongo andMatamba formed. TheDembos confederation sat between them and Kongo. Ndongo had come under tributary status to Kongo by the 16th century, and oral traditions collected in the 17th century hold their founder,Ngola Mussuri orBumbambula, to be a blacksmith who came there from Kongo, and was elected king (Ngola) due to his benevolence.[206]: 57
To its east aroundLake Mai-Ndombe, there emergedMwene Muji, likely around 1400. Their 'empire' status is pending on further archaeological research. With a powerful riverine navy, they expanded along theKasai,Lukenie,Kamtsha,Kwilu, andWamba rivers, without venturing much into the interior, coming to dominate trade.[207]
In the late 15th century, Kongo came into contact with the Portuguese. A Kongo delegation was invited toLisbon in 1487, and relations were initially warm. A Portuguese priest masteredKikongo and his input led to thebaptism ofKongo's king and royal court.[178]: 37–39 At the same time commercial relations developed. Trade in slaves was the most lucrative.[178]: 52
Further southeast in theUpemba Depression, "Lords of the land" held priestly roles due to their special relationship with the spirits of the land and were widely recognised, holding sway over multiple villages and essentially ruling embryonic kingdoms. As lineages grew in size, authority was opportunistically incorporated diplomatically or by force, leading to the formation of states.[208]: 557–558 Some of those of thesouthern savanna, such as theLuba-Katanga andSongye, had transitioned from being matrilineal topatrilineal by 1500, while others such as theLuba-Hemba andChokwe remained so, making up thematrilineal belt. An early state formed between theLualaba andLomami rivers among the Luba-Katanga, around the 15th century, known as theKingdom of Luba.[209]Their oral traditions account their people's history and hold their first king,Nkongolo, as a conqueror.[210][211]
By 1250,Mapungubwe had a population of 5000, and producedtextiles andceramics.[212][213] The centre of the settlement was the domain of men, and had an area for resolving disputes and making political decisions, while the outer zone was the domain of women, containing domestic complexes.[214] The second king had their palace in the middle of the hill, and is called "Tshidziwelele" inVenda oral traditions.[189] The king had many wives, with some living outside of the capital to help maintain the network of alliances.[215]: 38–51 The economy was based on agriculture, and to make more productive use of the land, cattle (previously held as the primary identifier of wealth) were herded away from the capital and permitted to graze on other communities' land, forming social and political ties and increasing Mapungubwe's influence. A large amount of wealth was accumulated via tributes, which were paid in crops, animals, and sometimes rarer goods.[216][213]: 163
Meanwhile, atGreat Zimbabwe agriculture and cattle played a key role in developing a vital social network, and served to "enfranchise management of goods and services distributed as benefits within traditional political and social institutions", while long-distance trade was crucial for the transformation of localised organisations into regional ones. This process rapidly advanced during the 13th century, which saw largedry masonry stone walls raised, and by 1250 Great Zimbabwe had become an important trade centre.[217]
The events around Mapungubwe's collapse are unknown.[h] It is plausible confidence was lost in the leadership amid the deepening material and spiritual divide between commoners and the king, and a breakdown in common purpose, provoking people to "vote with their feet".[188] By 1300, trade routes had shifted north as merchants bypassed theLimpopo and Mapungubwe by travelling theSave River into the gold-producing interior, precipitating Mapungubwe's rapid decline and the dominance of Great Zimbabwe.[188] Mapungubwe was abandoned as people scattered northwest and south. They didn't regroup.[215]: 55
Aerial view of the Great Enclosure and Valley Complex atGreat Zimbabwe, looking west
Great Zimbabwe's wealth was derived from cattle rearing, agriculture, and the domination of trade routes from the goldfields of the Zimbabwean Plateau to theSwahili coast. The kingdom taxed other rulers throughout the region and was composed of over 150 smaller zimbabwes, and likely covered 50,000 km2.[218][219]: 7 The large cattle herd that supplied the city moved seasonally and was managed by the court,[220] and salt, cattle, grain, and copper were traded as far north as theKundelungu Plateau in present-dayDR Congo.[221][222]: 17 At Great Zimbabwe's centre was the Great Enclosure which housed royalty and had demarcated spaces for rituals. Commoners' homes werebuilt out of mud on wooden frame structures,[223][190] and within the second perimeter wall they surrounded the royalty.[224] The institutionalisation of Great Zimbabwe's politico-religious ideology served to legitimise the position of the king (mambo), with a link between leaders, their ancestors, andGod.[190][216] The community incorporateddhaka pits into a complex water management system.[225]
As with Mapungubwe, it is unclear to what extent coercion and conflict facilitated Great Zimbabwe's dominance. While the Great Enclosure served to display prestige and status, and to reinforce inequalities between elites and commoners, it likely also served to deter contestation for political power amid the close linkage between wealth accumulation and political authority, with rivals for power, such as district chiefs and regional governors, located outside the settlement in prestige enclosures.[226] The perimeter walls also likely served a defensive purpose, indicating warfare was conventional.[190]
Map of trade centres and routes in precolonial Zimbabwe.
It is unclear what caused Great Zimbabwe's decline.Shonaoral tradition attributes Great Zimbabwe's demise to a salt shortage, which may be a figurative way of speaking of land depletion for agriculturalists or of the depletion of critical resources for the community.[227][228]: 10 It is plausible theaquifer Great Zimbabwe sat on top of ran out of water, or the growing population contaminated the water.[225] From the early 15th century, international trade began to decline amid a global economic downturn, reducing demand for gold, which adversely affected Great Zimbabwe. In response to this, elites expanded regional trading networks, resulting in greater prosperity for other settlements in the region.[229]
By the late 15th century, the consequences of this decision began to manifest, as offshoots from Great Zimbabwe's royal family formed new dynasties, possibly as a result of losing succession disputes.[229] According to oral tradition,Nyatsimba Mutota, a member of Great Zimbabwe's royal family, led part of the population north in search for salt to found theMutapa Empire.[i][229] It was believed that only their most recent ancestors would follow them, with older ancestors staying at Great Zimbabwe and providing protection there.[226] Mutota is said to have found salt in the lands of theTavara,[218]: 204 and settled around theRuya-Mazowe Basin, conquering and incorporating the pre-existing chiefdoms to control agricultural production and strategic resources. This placed the state at a key position in the gold and ivory trade.[231]Angoche traders opened a new route along theZambezi via Mutapa andIngombe Ilede to reach the goldfields west of Great Zimbabwe, precipitating its decline and the rise ofKhami (previously aLeopard's Kopje's chiefdom located close to the goldfields), the capital of theKingdom of Butua.[217]: 50 Butua's firstmambo was Madabhale of the Torwa dynasty, who had thepraise nameChibundule (meaning "sounding of the war horn").[j][232]: 50–51
In Mutapa, Mutota's son and successor,Nyanhewe Matope, moved the capital toMount Fura and extended this new kingdom into an empire encompassing most of the lands between Tavara and theIndian Ocean.[233] Matope's armies overran theManyika andTonga as well as the coastalTeve andMadanda.[233] Meanwhile, Butua rapidly grew in size and wealth, and came to border the Mutapa Empire along theSanyati River.[k][215] There appear to have intermarriages between the Nembire dynasty of Mutapa and the Torwa dynasty of Butua.[222] According to oral traditions, Changamire was likely a descendant of both dynasties.[222] He had been appointed governor (amir) of the southern portion of the Mutapa Empire (Guruhuswa).[235]: 46 In 1490, Changamire I rebelled against theMwenemutapa, his elder brother Nyahuma, and deposed him, reportedly with help from the Torwa. He ruled Mutapa for four years until he was killed by the rightful heir to the throne, reportedly his nephew. His son Changamire II continued the conflict,[234]: 54 ruling the southern portion which broke away from the Mutapa Empire.[235]: 46 Whether this breakaway state maintained independence or came back under the rule of theMwenemutapa is unclear, as we don't hear of the Changamire dynasty again until the 17th century.[234]: 54
Between 1878 and 1898, European states partitioned and conquered most of Africa. For 400 years, European nations had mainly limited their involvement to trading stations on the African coast, with few daring to venture inland. TheIndustrial Revolution in Europe produced several technological innovations which assisted them in overcoming this 400-year pattern. One was the development ofrepeating rifles, which were easier and quicker to load thanmuskets.Artillery was being used increasingly. In 1885,Hiram S. Maxim developed themaxim gun, the model of the modern-daymachine gun. European states kept these weapons largely among themselves by refusing to sell these weapons to African leaders.[99]: 268–269
African germs took numerous European lives and deterredpermanent settlements. Diseases such asyellow fever,sleeping sickness,yaws, andleprosy made Africa a very inhospitable place for Europeans. The deadliest disease wasmalaria, endemic throughoutTropical Africa. In 1854, the discovery ofquinine and other medical innovations helped to make conquest and colonization in Africa possible.[99]: 269
There were strong motives for conquest of Africa.Raw materials were needed for European factories. Prestige and imperial rivalries were at play. Acquiring African colonies would show rivals that a nation was powerful and significant. These contextual factors forged theScramble for Africa.[99]: 265
In the 1880s the European powers had carved up almost all of Africa (onlyEthiopia andLiberia were independent). The Europeans were captivated by the philosophies ofeugenics andSocial Darwinism, and some attempted to justify all this by branding itcivilising missions. Traditional leaders were incorporated into the colonial regimes as a form of indirect rule to extract human and natural resources and curb organized resistance.[236] Colonial borders were drawn unilaterally by the Europeans, often cutting across bonds of kinship, language, culture, and established routes, and sometimes incorporating groups who previously had little in common. The threat to trade routes was mitigated by poor policing and African entrepreneurs (viewed as smugglers) who exploited the differing tax and legal schemes.[237]
Areas controlled by European powers in 1939. British (red) and Belgian (marroon) colonies fought with the Allies. Italian (light green) with the Axis. French colonies (dark blue) fought alongside the Allies until the Fall of France in June 1940. Vichy was in control until the Free French prevailed in late 1942. Portuguese (dark green) and Spanish (yellow) colonies remained neutral.
Order of independence of African nations, 1950–2011
Imperialism ruled until after World War II when forces ofAfrican nationalism grew stronger. In the 1950s and 1960s the colonial holdings became independent states. The process was usually peaceful but there were several long bitter bloody civil wars, as in Algeria,[238] Kenya,[239] and elsewhere. Across Africa the powerful new force ofnationalism drew upon theadvanced militaristic skills that natives learned during the world wars serving in the British, French, and other armies. It led to organizations that were not controlled by or endorsed by either the colonial powers nor thetraditional local power structures who were viewed as collaborators. Nationalistic organizations began to challenge both the traditional and the new colonial structures, and finally displaced them. Leaders of nationalist movements took control when the European authorities evacuated; many ruled for decades or until they died. In recent decades, many African countries have undergone the triumph and defeat of nationalistic fervour, changing in the process the loci of the centralizing state power and patrimonial state.[240][241][242]
The wave ofdecolonization of Africa started withLibya in 1951, althoughLiberia,South Africa,Egypt andEthiopia were already independent. Many countries followed in the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in 1960 with theYear of Africa, which saw 17 African nations declare independence, including a large part ofFrench West Africa. Most of the remaining countries gained independence throughout the 1960s, although some colonizers (Portugal in particular) were reluctant to relinquish sovereignty, resulting in bitter wars of independence which lasted for a decade or more.
The last African countries to gain formal independence wereGuinea-Bissau (1974),Mozambique (1975) andAngola (1975) from Portugal;Djibouti from France in 1977; Zimbabwe from the United Kingdom in 1980; andNamibia from South Africa in 1990. Eritrea later split off from Ethiopia in 1993.[243] The nascent countries, despite some prior talk of redrawing borders, decided to keep their colonial borders in theOrganisation of African Unity (OAU) conference of 1964 due to fears of civil wars and regional instability, and placed emphasis onPan-Africanism, with the OAU later developing into theAfrican Union.[244] During the 1990s and early 2000s there were theFirst andSecond Congo Wars, often termed the African World Wars.[245][246]
Most African societies usedoral tradition to record their history, meaning there was littlewritten history. Colonial histories focussed on the exploits of soldiers, colonial administrators, and "colonial figures", using limited sources and written from anentirely European perspective, ignoring the viewpoint of the colonised under the pretence ofwhite supremacism.[247] Africans were consideredracially inferior, supporting their "civilising mission".[248] Oral sources were deprecated and dismissed by most historians, giving them the impression Africa had no history and little desire to create it.[249] Some colonisers took interest in the other viewpoint and attempted to produce a more detailed history of Africa using oral sources and archaeology, however they received little recognition at the time.[250]
Post-colonialist historiography studies the relationship between European colonialism and domination in Africa and the construction of African history and representation. It has roots inOrientalism, the construction of cultures from theAsian,Arabian andNorth African world in a patronizing manner stemming from a sense of Western superiority, first theorized byEdward Said.[251] A general perception of Western superiority throughout European academics and historians prominent during the height of colonialism led to the defining traits of colonial historical works, which post-colonialists have sought to analyse and criticize.
African historiography became organized at the academic level in the mid-20th century.[252] Members of theIbadan School, such asKenneth Dike andSaburi Biobaku, pioneered a new methodology of reconstructing African history using the oral traditions, alongside evidence from European-style histories and otherhistorical sciences.[253][254]: 212 This movement towards utilising oral sources in a multi-disciplinary approach culminated inUNESCO commissioning theGeneral History of Africa, edited by specialists drawn from across the African continent, publishing from 1981 to 2024.[253][254][255]
There is no agreed upon periodisation for Africa history, with the difference in temporal stages of state formation between parts of the continent providing disagreement.[256][257]Oliver andAtmore proposed Medieval Africa as from 1250 to 1800,[257] however the European terms "ancient", "medieval", and "modern" have been criticised as failing to represent African realities and capture its complexity.[258]: 25 Contemporary historians are still tasked with building the institutional frameworks, incorporatingAfrican epistemologies, and representing an African perspective.[259]
^This characterisation has come under criticism by some African scholars, as it implies conflict between the oral and written. They instead contend that in reality, the characterisation is defined by the interaction between three ways of expression and diffusion: the oral, the written, and the printed word.[3]Bethwell Allan Ogot notes that images of Africa composed by Western writers have often been in terms of "opposites" and how they differ from an "us".[4]
^In stateless societies, oral histories centred around clan histories.[10]John Lonsdale famously said that "the most distinctively African contribution to human history could be said to have been precisely the civilized art of living fairly peaceably togethernot in states".[11]
^In these cases, time's duration is not as it affects the fate of the individual, but the pulse of the social group. It is not a river flowing in one direction from a known source to a known outlet. Generally, traditional African time involveseternity in both directions, unlikeChristians who consider eternity to operate in one direction. In Africananimism, time is an arena where both the group and the individual struggle for theirvitality. The goal is to improve their situation, thus being dynamic.Bygone generations remain contemporary, and as influential as they were during their lifetime, if not more so. In these circumstances causality operates in a forward direction from past to present and from present to future, however direct intervention can operate in any direction.[24]: 44, 49
^Soninke oral traditions hold that, intent on invading Ghana, the Almoravid army found the king respectful of Islam, and that he willingly adopted Islam with the exchange of gold for animam relocating toKoumbi Saleh.[164]: 23–24
^According to some traditions,Wagadu's fall is caused when a nobleman attempts to save a maiden from sacrifice against her wishes and killsBida before escaping the population's ire on horseback, annullingWagadu and Bida's prior assurance and unleashing a curse causing drought and famine, sometimes causing gold to be discovered inBure. The Soninke generation that survived the drought were called "it has been hard for them" ("a jara nununa").[166]: 56, 64
^Some scholars contest that cultures and identities can't be considered fixed or invariable, especially over such a long time period.[179]
^The choice of a title over a personal name indicates that this is more representative of symbolic relationships and rights of rulership rather than real events.
^It has previously been attributed to drastic climatic change amid theLittle Ice Age, however this has since been disproven.
^According to tradition, the move came about because the king was tired of eating salt made from goat's dung.[230]
^Kalangaoral traditions collected in 1922 compress the history of the Torwa dynasty into that of one ruler called Chibundule, such that the story of Chibundule represents that of Butua. In apraise poem, Chibundule is said to have given refuge to the elephant (the totem of the Mutapa dynasty) and the rhinoceros (possibly the totem ofMapungubwe's dynasty due to theGolden Rhinoceros of Mapungubwe).[138]: 51
^Portuguese records from 1520 state that Butua was a vassal of Mwenemutapa, however this is likely to have been falsified in order to portray Portuguese commercial dealings with Mutapa as more important than they were.[234]: 49
^Stilwell, Sean (2013). "Slavery in African History".Slavery and Slaving in African History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 38.doi:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003.ISBN978-1-139-03499-9.For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.
^Lovejoy, Paul E. (2012).Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. London: Cambridge University Press.
^Sparks, Randy J. (2014). "4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe".Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade. Harvard University Press. pp. 122–161.ISBN9780674724877.
^O'Brien, Patrick Karl (2002),Atlas of World History, pp. 22–23. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-521921-X.
^Stuiver, Minze; Van Der Merwe, N.J. (1968). "Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa".Current Anthropology.9:54–58.doi:10.1086/200878.S2CID145379030.
^Eggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P (ed.).Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context. Frankfurt, Germany: Africa Magna Verlag Press. pp. 51–59.
^abHoll, Augustin F. C. (6 November 2009). "Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy".Journal of World Prehistory.22 (4):415–438.doi:10.1007/s10963-009-9030-6.S2CID161611760.
^Anderson, J. R. (2012). "Kerma".The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History.doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah15224.ISBN9781444338386. She states, "To date, Kerma-culture has been found from the region of the First Cataract to upstream of the Fourth Cataract."
^Eric Herbert Warmington,The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India, p. 187.
^George Hatke,Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa (New York University Press, 2013), pp. 44.ISBN0-7486-0106-6
^abMahjoubi, Ammar; Salama, Pierre (1981). "The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa".General History of Africa: Volume 2. UNESCO Publishing.
^Duncan E. Miller and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Early Metal Working in Sub Saharan Africa'Journal of African History 35 (1994) 1–36; Minze Stuiver and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa'Current Anthropology 1968.
^Anquandah, James (1995) The Kintampo Complex: a case study of early sedentism and food production in sub-Sahelian west Africa, pp. 255–259 in Shaw, Thurstan, Andah, Bassey W and Sinclair, Paul (1995). The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns. London: Routledge.ISBN0-415-11585-X
^Eggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P (ed.).Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context. Frankfurt, Germany: Africa Magna Verlag Press. pp. 51–59.
^Posnansky, Merrick (1981). "The societies of Africa south of the Sahara in the Early Iron Age".General History of Africa: Volume 2(PDF). UNESCO. p. 729.
^abcdefghijkTamrat, Taddesse (1977). Oliver, Roland (ed.)."Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn".The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 3: From c.1050 to c.1600. The Cambridge History of Africa. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 98–182.ISBN978-0-521-20981-6. Retrieved2024-09-03.
^Tamrat, Taddesse (1984). "The Horn of Africa: The Solomonids in Ethiopia and the states of the Horn of Africa".General History of Africa: Volume 4. UNESCO Publishing.
^Allibert, Claude (May 2008). "Austronesian Migration and the Establishment of the Malagasy Civilization: Contrasted Readings in Linguistics, Archaeology, Genetics and Cultural Anthropology".Diogenes.55 (2):7–16.doi:10.1177/0392192108090734.
^Tofanelli, S.; Bertoncini, S.; Castri, L.; Luiselli, D.; Calafell, F.; Donati, G.; Paoli, G. (1 September 2009). "On the Origins and Admixture of Malagasy: New Evidence from High-Resolution Analyses of Paternal and Maternal Lineages".Molecular Biology and Evolution.26 (9):2109–2124.doi:10.1093/molbev/msp120.PMID19535740.
^Brooks, George E. (August 1985). "WESTERN AFRICA TO c1860 A.D. A PROVISIONAL HISTORICAL SCHEMA BASED ON CLIMATE PERIODS".Indiana University African Studies Program: 36.
^Colvin, Lucie Gallistel,Historical dictionary of Senegal, Scare Crow Press Inc. (1981), p. 18,ISBN0-8108-1369-6
^Levtzion N. The Sahara and the Sudan from the Arab conquest of the Maghrib to the rise of the Almoravids. In: Fage JD, ed. The Cambridge History of Africa. The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press; 1979:637–684.
^Fall, Mamadou (2021). "Les Terroirs Historiques et la Poussée Soninké". In Fall, Mamadou; Fall, Rokhaya; Mane, Mamadou (eds.).Bipolarisation du Senegal du XVIe – XVIIe siécle (in French). Dakar: HGS Editions. pp. 14–39.
^POLLET Eric, WINTER Grace, La Société Soninké (Dyahunu, Mali), Bruxelles, Editions de l'Institut de Sociologie de l'Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1971.
^abcdefIzard, Michel (1984). "The peoples and kingdoms of the Niger Bend and the Volta basin from the 12th to 16th century".General History of Africa: Volume 4. UNESCO Publishing.
^Vansina, Jan (1984). "Equatorial Africa and Angola: Migrations and the emergence of the first states".General History of Africa: Volume 4. UNESCO Publishing.
^Falola, Toyin; Jennings, Christian (2003)."Introduction".Sources and Methods in African History: Spoken, Written, Unearthed. University Rochester Press.ISBN978-1-58046-134-4.
Gomez, Michael (2018).African dominion: a new history of empire in early and medieval West Africa. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ISBN9780691177427.
Levtzion, Nehemia; Hopkins, John F.P., eds. (2000).Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa. New York, NY: Marcus Weiner Press.ISBN1-55876-241-8.
Mamdani, Mahmood (1996).Citizen and subject : contemporary Africa and the legacy of late colonialism. Kampala: Fountain Publishers.ISBN9780852553992.OCLC35445018.
Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian (2000).Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-45257-1.
FitzSimons, William. "Sizing Up the 'Small Wars' of African Empire: An Assessment of the Context and Legacies of Nineteenth-Century Colonial Warfare".Journal of African Military History 2#1 (2018): 63–78.doi:10.1163/24680966-0020100
French, Howard (2021).Born in Blackness: Africa, Africans, and the Making of the Modern World, 1471 to the Second World War. New York: Liveright Publishing Company.ISBN9781631495823.OCLC1268921040.
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July, Robert (1998).A History of the African People, (Waveland Press, 1998).
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