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African cuisine is an integral part of the continent's diverse cultures reflecting its long and complex history. The evolution of African cuisine is closely entwined with the lives of the native people, influenced by their religious practices, climate and localagriculture. Early African societies were largely composed of hunter-gatherers who relied on foraging for wild fruits, vegetables, nuts, and hunting animals for sustenance.[1] Asagriculture developed across the continent, there was a gradual shift to a more settled lifestyle with the cultivation of crops such as millet, sorghum, and later maize. Agriculture also brought about a change in diet, leading to the development of a variety of culinary traditions which vary by religion. Many African traditional dishes are based on plant- and seed-based diets.[2]
Each region in Africa has developed its own distinctive culinary practices, shaped by local ingredients, colonial history and trade. InWest Africa, for example, dishes often feature rice, millet, and beans complemented by spicy stews made with fish, meat, and leafy greens. The use of chili peppers, peanuts and palm oil is also widespread in this region.Central African cuisine on the other hand, tends to be simpler and relies heavily on starchy foods such as cassava and plantains, often served with sauces made with peanuts or vegetables.[3] InEast Africa, particularly in countries like Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, the cuisine reflects a combination of native agricultural practices and influences from trade routes with India and the Middle East.[4] Staples such as maize, beans, and rice are commonly consumed along with dishes like Ugali ( a maize-based porridge) and sukuma wiki ( a dish made from collard greens). The coastal areas of East Africa, particularly along the Swahili coast, feature seafood and curries seasoned with spices such as cardamom and cloves, a direct influence of Indian and Arab traders.Southern African cuisine also displays a blend of indigenous ingredients and colonial influences. Dishes such as pap ( a maize-based porridge), biltong ( a type of sausage) are popular in countries like South Africa, Botswana, and Namibia. The cuisine is characterized by the use of game meat, maize, and beans, as well as European influences introduced during colonial times. Traditionally, the variouscuisines of Africa use a combination of plant-and seed-based ingredients,[5][6] without having food imported. In some parts of the continent, the traditional diet features an abundance of root tuber products.[7][8]
Africa represents a rich history of adaptation, trade, and resourcefulness. while regional differences are pronounced, the use of local ingredients and traditional cooking techniques remains central to the continent's culinary identity.Central Africa,East Africa,North Africa,Southern Africa andWest Africa each have distinctive dishes, preparation techniques, and consumption modes.[5][9]
The roots of nativeAfrican cuisine goes back to thousands of years before theBronze Age inNortheast Africa, when early civilizations began cultivating grains such as barley and wheat.[10] Part of North Africa is in theFertile Crescent where settled agriculture was practiced by theAncient Egyptians in this area. Animals such as donkeys and sheep were also domesticated, starting the spread of agriculture to other parts of Africa, notablyWest Africa. Although most tribes still lived a simple hunter-gather diet.[11]
Arab explorers-Leo Africanus andIbn Battuta- provided accounts of African food which they encountered on their travels through sub-Saharan Africa. Most European travelers stayed close to coastal areas until the 19th century. Many of their diaries also recorded details on foods and crops. Many staples were introduced later when Africa was colonized by the Europeans. Foods that are now important parts of African cuisine such asmaize andpotatoes were not common until the 19th century.[12]
The influence of African food on Caribbean, Brazilian, AmericanLowcountry cuisine, andCajun cuisine from Louisiana is seen in rice dishes and green stews like the Afro-Caribbeanefo,duckanoo andcallaloo. The vegetableokra, introduced from Africa, is used in classic Louisianagumbos, andAmerican rice growing in the Carolina. Lowcountry was influenced by West African techniques of rice cultivation and many slaves hailed from the rice-growing regions of West Africa. Lowcountry cuisine is still known for its distinctive rice dishes.[13]
Central Africa expands from theTibesti Mountains in the north to the vastrainforest basin of theCongo River, the highlands ofKivu and the savannah of Katanga.
This region has received the culinary influence of theSwahilis (culture that evolved via the combination of Bantu, Yemeni, Omani and Indian cultures) during thetrans-Saharan slave trade. Swahili culinary influences can be found in dishes such asmandazi,pilaf rice,kachumbari,sambusa, andkuku paka.[14]
Central African cuisine has also been influenced by the Portuguese, by way of theKongo andNdongo Kingdoms.Salt fish was introduced following trade in the late 17th century, and the Kikongo term forsalt fish,makayabu, comes from the termbacalhau (ba-cal-ha-u).[15]
The Portuguese culinary influence is especially prominent in Angola, Sao Tomé and Equatorial Guinea. Central Africa has also been influenced by the cuisine of the East, West and Southern Africa regions because of their close proximity, e.g.babuté orbobotie is shared with the south,nyama choma with the east andsauce gombo [fr] with West Africa.
In Central Africa, a variety of crops are grown, including yams, cassava, bananas and plantains, sweet potatoes, and cocoyams. These crops have become staples in the diet of many people in Central Africa.[16]Fufu-like starchy foods are usually made from fermented cassava roots, but they can also be made with plantain, corn maize and yam. Fufu is served buffet-style with grilled meat, fish, stews, greens andpiment . A variety of local ingredients are used while preparing other dishes, likespinach stew cooked with tomato, peppers, chilies, onions, and peanut butter.[17] Eastern central Africa is also one of the few regions in Africa that uses potatoes as one of its main bases, since potatoes grow easily in the region.
Cassava plants are also consumed as cookedgreens. Groundnut (peanut) stew is also prepared, containingchicken,okra,ginger, and other spices. Beef and chicken are favorite meat dishes, butgame meat preparations containingcrocodile,elephant,antelope andwarthog meats are also served occasionally.[18][19][20][21][22]
The cuisine ofEast Africa varies from area to area. In the inland savannah, the traditional cuisine of cattle-keeping peoples is distinctive meaning that meat products are generally absent.Cattle,sheep,pigs andgoats were regarded as a form ofcurrency[23] and a store of wealth. They are not generally consumed as food.[24]
In some areas, traditionalEast Africans consume the milk and blood of cattle, but rarely the meat. Elsewhere, other Africans are farmers who grow a variety of grains and vegetables.Maize (corn) is the basis ofugali', the local version of West and Central Africa'sfufu. Ugali is a starch dish eaten with meats or stews. InUganda, steamed greenbananas calledmatoke provide the starch filler of many meals.
Around 1000 years ago,Omani andYemeni merchants settled on theSwahili Coast. Middle Eastern influences are especially reflected in theSwahili cuisine of the coast—steamed or cooked rice with spices inPersian style;saffron,cloves,cinnamon and several other spices; andpomegranate juice.[25]
Several centuries later, the British and the Indians came, and both brought with them foods such as Indian spiced vegetablecurries,lentilsoups,chapattis and a variety ofpickles which have influenced various local dishes. Some common ingredients used in this region include oranges, lemons, limes, chilies, capsicum peppers, maize, tomatoes, and strawberries.
In the Horn of Africa, the main traditional dishes inEritrean cuisine andEthiopian cuisine aretsebhis (stews) served withinjera[6][26] (flatbread made fromteff,[26]wheat, orsorghum) and hilbet (paste made fromlegumes, mainlylentils andfava beans). Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisine (especially in the northern half) are very similar, given the shared history of the two countries.
Eritrean and Ethiopian food habits vary regionally. In thehighlands, injera is the staple diet and is eaten daily among theTigrinya. Injera is made out of teff, wheat, barley, sorghum or corn, and resembles a spongy, slightly sour pancake. When eating, diners generally share food from a large tray placed in the center of a low dining table. Many injera are layered on this tray and topped with various spicy stews. Diners then break into the section of injera in front of them, tearing off pieces and dipping them into the stews.
In the lowlands, the main dish isakelet, a porridge-like dish made from wheat flour dough. Aladle is used to scoop out the top, which is filled withberbere and butter sauce and surrounded by milk or yoghurt. A small piece of dough is broken and then used to scoop up the sauce.
The best known Ethiopian/Eritrean cuisine consists of various vegetable or meat side dishes and entrées, usually awat, or thickstew, served atop injera, a largesourdoughflatbread made of teff flour. One does not eat with utensils, but instead uses injera to scoop up the entrées and side dishes.
Tihlo, prepared from roasted barley flour, is very popular in Amhara, Agame, and Awlaelo (Tigray). Traditional Ethiopian cuisine employs nopork orshellfish of any kind, as they are forbidden in the Jewish andEthiopian Orthodox Christian faiths. It is also very common to eat from the same dish in the center of the table with a group of people.
Somali cuisine varies from region to region and consists of an exoticmixture of diverse culinary influences. It is the product ofSomalia's richtradition of trade and commerce. Despite the variety, there remains one thing that unites the various regional cuisines: all food is servedhalal. There are therefore no pork dishes,alcohol is not served, nothing that died on its own is eaten, and no blood is incorporated. Qaddo or lunch is often elaborate.
Varieties of bariis (rice), the most popular beingbasmati, usually serve as the main dish. Spices likecumin,cardamom,cloves,cinnamon andsage are used to aromatize these different rice dishes. Somalis serve dinner as late as 9 pm. DuringRamadan, dinner is often served afterTarawih prayers, sometimes as late as 11 pm.
Xalwo (halwo) orhalva is a popular confection served during special occasions such asEid celebrations or wedding receptions. It is made from sugar,cornstarch,cardamom powder,nutmeg powder, andghee. Peanuts are also sometimes added to enhance texture and flavor.[27] After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed usingfrankincense (lubaan) orincense (cuunsi), which is prepared inside anincense burner referred to as adabqaad.
Food and nutrition security in East Africa (Rwanda, Burundi and South Sudan) is a significant issue. The region has been plagued by drought, conflict and economic instability since the 1990s. The current situation is characterized by low levels of food availability and high levels of malnutrition among young children. The solution proposed for this problem is to increase local food production. This would be achieved by increasing agricultural productivity by improving soil fertility and water management, which will help farmers grow more crops per year. This will also help reduce poverty in the region by providing more employment opportunities for local people.[28]
In a study of food loss and waste in North Africa, researchers found that the region was wasting about 30% of its food, which is likely to increase as the population continues to grow. This waste occurs for a variety of reasons, including lack of refrigeration and storage facilities. To solve this issue, the people had to get creative with new dishes and ways of storing food. The more we looked, the more we found that people were using all parts of plants in some way—the leaves, stems, flowers, fruits and seeds. They also used every edible part of animals as well—from fat to bones for making broth or soup.[29]
North Africa lies along theMediterranean Sea and encompasses within its fold several nations, includingMorocco,Algeria,Libya,Tunisia, andEgypt. The roots of North African cuisine can be traced back to the ancient empires of North Africa, particularly in Egypt, where many of the country's dishes and culinary traditions date back toAfricanantiquity.
Over several centuries traders, travelers, invaders, migrants and immigrants all have influenced the cuisine of North Africa. ThePhoenicians of the 1st century broughtsausages, while theCarthaginians introducedwheat and its by-product,semolina. TheBerbers adapted semolina intocouscous, one of the mainstaple foods.Olives andolive oil were introduced before the arrival of the Romans.
From the 7th century onwards, theArabs introduced a variety ofspices, likesaffron,nutmeg,cinnamon,ginger andcloves, which contributed and influenced the culinary culture of North Africa. TheOttoman Turks brought sweetpastries and otherbakery products, and from theNew World, North Africa gotpotatoes,tomatoes,zucchini and chili peppers.
Most of the North African countries have several similar dishes, sometimes almost the same dish with a different name (the Moroccan tangia and the Tunisian coucha are both essentially the same dish, a meat stew prepared in anurn and cooked overnight in a public oven), sometimes with a slight change in ingredients and cooking style. In addition, two completely different dishes may also share the same name (for example, a tajine dish is a slow-cooked stew in Morocco, whereas the Tunisian tajine is a bakedomelette/quiche-like dish). There are noticeable differences between the cooking styles of different nations, from the sophisticated, full-bodied flavors ofMoroccan palace cookery to the fiery dishes ofTunisian cuisine and the humbler, simpler cuisines ofEgypt andAlgeria.[30]
The cooking of the Southern Africa region (not to be confused with the country ofSouth Africa) is sometimes called "rainbow cuisine",[31] as the food in this region is a blend of many cultures:indigenousAfrican societies,European, andAsian. To understand indigenousAfrican cuisine, it is important to understand the various native peoples of southern Africa. The indigenousAfricans of Southern Africa were roughly divided into two groups and several subgroups.
The largest group consisted of theBantu-speakers, whose descendants today may identify themselves by various subgroup names such as Ndebele (northern andsouthern),Shona,Venda,Zulu,Xhosa,Swazi,Sotho,Tswana,Pedi andTsonga. They arrived in the region around 2,000 years ago, bringing crop cultivation, animal husbandry, and iron toolmaking with them. Hence the Bantu-speakers grew grain crops extensively and raised cattle, sheep and goats. They also grew and continue to grow pumpkins, beans, and leafy greens as vegetables.
A smaller group were the primeval residents of the region, theKhoisan, who some archaeologists believe had lived in the region for at least 10,000 years. Many descendants of the Khoisan people have now been incorporated into the population of South Africa. The Khoisan originally were hunter-gatherers (who came to be known as "San" by the Bantu-speakers and as "bushmen" by Europeans). After the arrival of the Bantu-speakers, however, someKhoisan adopted the Bantu-speakers' raising of cattle but did not grow crops. TheKhoisan who raised cattle called themselves "Khoi-Khoi" and came to be known by Europeans as "Hottentots."
[32] People were, in other words, defined to some extent by the kinds of food they ate. The Bantu-speakers ate dishes of grain, meat, milk and vegetables, as well as fermented grain and fermented milk products. While the Khoi-Khoi ate meat and milk and the San hunted wild animals and gathered wild tubers and vegetables. In many ways, the daily food of native South African families can be traced to the indigenous foods that their nativeAfrican ancestors ate. TheKhoisan andBantu traditionally ate roasted meat, and they also dried meat for later use.
The influence of their diet is reflected in the universal Southern African love of barbecue (generally called in South Africa by its Afrikaans name, a "braai") andbiltong (dried preserved meat). The traditional beer was ubiquitous in the southern African diet, and the fermentation added additional nutrients to the diet.[33] It was a traditional obligation for any family to be able to offer a visitor copious amounts of beer. Beer brewing was done by women, and the status of a housewife in pre-colonial southern Africa depended significantly on her skill at brewing delicious beer.
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Milk was historically one of the most important components of the southern African diet.[34] Cattle were considered a man's most important possession. In order to marry, a man had to compensate his prospective in-laws with a gift of cattle as a dowry for his bride. A married man was expected to provide a generous supply of milk to his wife and children, along with meat whenever he slaughtered cattle, sheep or goats. Because there was no refrigeration, milk was mostly soured into a kind of yogurt.
The young men of the family often took care of the cattle far away from the villages at "cattle posts," and they sent a steady stream of yogurt home on behalf of their fathers. Today, many South Africans ofAfrican origin enjoy drinking sour milk products that are sold in the supermarket, comparable to American buttermilk, yogurt, and sour cream.On weekends they will have a "braai", and the meal usually consists of "pap and vleis", which is maize porridge and grilled meat as has historically been done in the region.
The basic ingredients include seafood, meat products (including wild game), poultry, as well as grains, fresh fruits and vegetables. Fruits includeapples,grapes,mangoes,bananas,papayas,avocado,oranges,peaches andapricots. Desserts may simply be fruit, but there are some more western-style puddings, such asmalva pudding, reminiscent ofsticky toffee pudding, which was inspired by bothBritish cuisine andDutch cuisine. Meat products include lamb, and game likevenison,ostrich, andimpala. The seafood includescrayfish,prawns,tuna,mussels,oysters, calamari,mackerel, andlobster. There are also several types of traditional and modernalcoholic beverages including many European-stylebeers.
A typicalWest African meal is made withstarchy items and can contain meat, fish, as well as various spices and herbs. A wide array of staples are eaten across the region, includingfufu,banku,kenkey (originating fromGhana), foutou,couscous, tô, andgarri, which are served alongside soups and stews. Fufu is often made from starchyroot vegetables such asyams,cocoyams, orcassava, and also from cereal grains like millet, sorghum or plantains.
The staple grain or starch varies between regions and ethnic groups, although corn has gained significant ground as it is cheap, swells to greater volumes and creates a beautiful white final product that is greatly desired. Banku and kenkey are maize dough staples, and garri is made from dried grated cassavas. Rice dishes are also widely eaten in the region, especially in the drySahel belt inland. Examples of these include the Senegalese dishthieboudienne also known asbenachin orJollof rice, a pan-West African rice dish similar to Arabkabsah.
Seeds of Guinea pepper (Aframomum melegueta, also called grains of paradise or melegueta pepper), a nativeWest African plant, were used as a spice and even reached Europe, through North African middlemen, during the Middle Ages. Centuries before the influence of the Europeans,West Africans were trading with theArab world and spices likecinnamon,cloves, andmint were not unknown, therefore becoming part of the local flavorings. Centuries later, the Portuguese, French and British influenced the regional cuisines, but only to a limited extent.
The local cuisine and recipes ofWest Africa continue to remain deeply entrenched in the local customs and traditions, with ingredients like native rice (Oryza glaberrima), rice,fonio, millet, sorghum,Bambara groundnuts andHausa groundnuts,black-eyed peas, brown beans, and root vegetables such as yams,cocoyams,sweet potatoes, and cassava. Cooking techniques includeroasting,baking,boiling,frying, mashing, and spicing. A range of sweets and savories are also prepared.
Cooking techniques of West Africa are changing. In the pastWest Africans ate much less meat and used native oils (palm oil on the coast andshea butter in Sahelian regions). Baobob leaf and numerous local greens were everyday staples during certain times of the year. Today the diet is much heavier in meats, salt, and fats. Many dishes combine fish and meat, including dried and fermented fish. Flaked and dried fish is often fried in oil, and sometimes cooked in sauce made with hot peppers, onions, tomatoes, various spices (such assoumbala), and water to prepare a highly flavored stew.
In some areas beef and mutton are preferred, and goat meat is the dominant red meat.Suya, a popular grilled spicy meatkebab flavored with peanuts and other spices, is sold by street vendors as a snack or evening meal and is typically made with beef or chicken. It is common to have a preponderance of seafood, which as earlier stated, is sometimes also mixed with other meat products. Guinea fowl and chicken eggs are also preferred.
With regard to beverages, water has a very strong ritual significance in many West African nations (particularly in dry areas) and water is often the first thing anAfrican host will offer their guest.Palm wine is also a common beverage made from the fermented sap of various types ofpalm trees and is usually sold in sweet (less-fermented, retaining more of the sap's sugar) or sour (fermented longer, making it stronger and less sweet) varieties. Millet beer is another common beverage (Millet beer, also known as Bantu beer, is an alcoholic beverage made from malted millet.)[35]
