Historically, the ethnonymAfghān was used to refer to ethnicPashtuns.[45] The Arabic and Persian form of the name,Afġān, was first attested in the 10th-century geography bookHudud al-'Alam.[46] The last part of the name, "-stan", is a Persian suffix meaning "place of". Therefore, "Afghanistan" translates to "land of the Afghans", or "land of the Pashtuns" in a historical sense. According to the third edition of theEncyclopaedia of Islam:[47]
The name Afghanistan (Afghānistān, land of the Afghans / Pashtuns,afāghina, sing.afghān) can be traced to the early eighth/fourteenth century, when it designated the easternmost part of theKartid realm. This name was later used for certain regions in theṢafavid andMughal empires that were inhabited by Afghans. While based on a state-supporting elite ofAbdālī / Durrānī Afghans, theSadūzāʾī Durrānī polity that came into being in 1160 / 1747 was not called Afghanistan in its own day. The name became a state designation only during the colonial intervention of the nineteenth century.
Tents of Afghannomads in the northernBadghis Province. Early peasant farming villages came into existence about 7,000 years ago.
Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares toEgypt in the historical value of its archaeological sites.[49][50] Artifacts typical of thePaleolithic,Mesolithic,Neolithic,Bronze, andIron Ages have been found in Afghanistan. Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city ofMundigak (nearKandahar in the south of the country) was a center of theHelmand culture. More recent findings established that theIndus Valley Civilization stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on theOxus River atShortugai in northern Afghanistan.[51][52][53]
After 2000 BCE successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan; among them were manyIndo-European-speakingIndo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, and toward Europe via the area north of theCaspian Sea. The region at the time was referred to asAriana.[49][54] By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids overthrew theMedes and incorporatedArachosia,Aria, andBactria within its eastern boundaries. Aninscription on the tombstone ofDarius I of Persia mentions theKabul Valley in a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered.[55] The region ofArachosia, aroundKandahar in modern-day southern Afghanistan, used to be primarily Zoroastrian and played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta toPersia and is thus considered by some to be the "second homeland of Zoroastrianism".[56][57][58]
Alexander the Great and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeatingDarius III of Persia a year earlier in theBattle of Gaugamela. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of theSeleucid Empire controlled the region until 305 BCE, when they gave much of it to theMaurya Empire as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the area south of theHindu Kush until they were overthrown in about 185 BCE. Their decline began 60 years afterAshoka's rule ended, leading to theHellenistic reconquest by theGreco-Bactrians. Much of it soon broke away and became part of theIndo-Greek Kingdom. They were defeated and expelled by theIndo-Scythians in the late 2nd century BCE.[59][60]TheSilk Road appeared during the first century BCE, and Afghanistan flourished with trade, with routes to China, India, Persia, and north to the cities ofBukhara,Samarkand, andKhiva in present-day Uzbekistan.[61] Goods and ideas were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk, Persian silver and Roman gold, while the region of present Afghanistan was mining and tradinglapis lazuli stones[62] mainly from theBadakhshan region.
During the first century BCE, theParthian Empire subjugated the region but lost it to theirIndo-Parthian vassals. In the mid-to-late first century CE the vastKushan Empire, centered in Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture, makingBuddhism flourish throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by theSassanids in the 3rd century CE, though theIndo-Sassanids continued to rule at least parts of the region. They were followed by theKidarites who, in turn, was replaced by theHephthalites. They were replaced by theTurk Shahi in the 7th century. The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before the Saffarids conquered the area in 870, this Hindu dynasty was calledHindu Shahi.[63] Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated byBuddhist culture.[64][65]
In the early 16th centuryBabur arrived fromFerghana and captured Kabul from theArghun dynasty.[87]Babur would go on to conquer the AfghanLodi dynasty who had ruled the Delhi Sultanate in theFirst Battle of Panipat.[88] Between the 16th and 18th century, the UzbekKhanate of Bukhara, IranianSafavids, and IndianMughals ruled parts of the territory.[89] During the medieval period, the northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional nameKhorasan, which was commonly used up to the 19th century among natives to describe their country.[90][91][92][93]
Map of the Hotak Empire at its height in 1728, disputed betweenHussain Hotak (centered in Kandahar) andAshraf Hotak (centered in Isfahan)
In 1709,Mirwais Hotak, a localGhilzai tribal leader, successfully rebelled against theSafavids. He defeatedGurgin Khan, the Georgian governor of Kandahar under the Safavids, and established his own kingdom.[94] Mirwais died in 1715, and was succeeded by his brotherAbdul Aziz, who was soon killed by Mirwais's sonMahmud for possibly planning to sign a peace with the Safavids. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital ofIsfahan, and captured the city after theBattle of Gulnabad and proclaimed himself King of Persia.[94] The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia byNader Shah after the 1729Battle of Damghan.
In 1738,Nader Shah and hisforces captured Kandahar in thesiege of Kandahar, the last Hotak stronghold, from ShahHussain Hotak. Soon after, the Persian and Afghan forcesinvaded India, Nader Shah had plundered Delhi, alongside his 16-year-old commander,Ahmad Shah Durrani who had assisted him on these campaigns. Nader Shah was assassinated in 1747.[95][96]
After the death of Nader Shah in 1747,Ahmad Shah Durrani had returned to Kandahar with a contingent of 4,000Pashtuns. The Abdalis had "unanimously accepted" Ahmad Shah as their new leader. With his ascension in 1747, Ahmad Shah had led multiple campaigns against theMughal empire,Maratha empire, and then-recedingAfsharid empire. Ahmad Shah had capturedKabul andPeshawar from the Mughal appointed governor, Nasir Khan. Ahmad Shah had then conqueredHerat in 1750, and had also capturedKashmir in 1752.[97] Ahmad Shah had launched two campaigns intoKhorasan, 1750–1751 and 1754–1755.[98] His first campaign had seen the siege ofMashhad, however, he was forced to retreat after four months. In November 1750, he moved to siegeNishapur, but he was unable to capture the city and was forced to retreat in early 1751.Ahmad Shah returned in 1754; he capturedTun, and on 23 July, he siegedMashhad once again. Mashhad had fallen on 2 December, butShahrokh wasreappointed in 1755. He was forced to give upTorshiz,Bakharz,Jam,Khaf, andTurbat-e Haidari to the Afghans, as well as accept Afghan sovereignty. Following this, Ahmad Shah siegedNishapur once again, and captured it.
Ahmad Shahinvaded India eight times during his reign,[99] beginning in 1748. Crossing the Indus River, his armies sacked and absorbedLahore into theDurrani Realm. He met Mughal armies at theBattle of Manupur (1748), where he was defeated and forced to retreat back to Afghanistan.[100] He returned the next year in 1749 and captured the area aroundLahore andPunjab, presenting it as an Afghan victory for this campaign.[101] From 1749 to 1767, Ahmad Shah led six more invasions, the most important being the last; theThird Battle of Panipat created a power vacuum in northern India, haltingMaratha expansion.
Ahmad Shah Durrani died in October 1772, and a civil war over succession followed, with his named successor,Timur Shah Durrani, succeeding him after the defeat of his brother, Suleiman Mirza.[102] Timur Shah Durrani ascended to the throne in November 1772, having defeated a coalition under Shah Wali Khan and Humayun Mirza. Timur Shah began his reign by consolidating power toward himself and people loyal to him, purging Durrani Sardars and influential tribal leaders inKabul andKandahar. One of Timur Shah's reforms was to move the capital of theDurrani Empire fromKandahar toKabul. Timur Shah fought multiple series of rebellions to consolidate the empire, and he also led campaigns intoPunjab against the Sikhs like his father, though more successfully. The most prominent example of his battles during this campaign was when he led his forces under Zangi Khan Durrani – with over 18,000 men total of Afghan, Qizilbash, and Mongol cavalrymen – against over 60,000 Sikh men. The Sikhs lost over 30,000 in this battle and staged a Durrani resurgence in thePunjab region.[103] The Durranis lostMultan in 1772 after Ahmad Shah's death. Following this victory, Timur Shah was able to lay siege toMultan and recapture it,[104] incorporating it into the Durrani Empire once again, reintegrating it as a province until theSiege of Multan (1818). Timur Shah was succeeded by his sonZaman Shah Durrani after his death in May 1793. Timur Shah's reign oversaw the attempted stabilization and consolidation of the empire. However, Timur Shah had over 24 sons, which plunged the empire in civil war over succession crises.[105]
Zaman Shah Durrani succeeded to theDurrani Throne following the death of his father, Timur Shah Durrani. His brothersMahmud Shah Durrani and Humayun Mirza revolted against him, with Humayun centered inKandahar and Mahmud Shah centered inHerat.[106] Zaman Shah would defeat Humayun and force the loyalty of Mahmud Shah Durrani.[106] Securing his position on the throne, Zaman Shah led three campaigns intoPunjab. The first two campaigns capturedLahore, but he retreated due to intel about a possibleQajar invasion. Zaman Shah embarked on his third campaign forPunjab in 1800 to deal with a rebellious Ranjit Singh.[107] However, he was forced to withdraw, and Zaman Shah's reign was ended by Mahmud Shah Durrani.[107] However, just under two years into his reign, Mahmud Shah Durrani was deposed by his brotherShah Shuja Durrani on 13 July 1803.[108] Shah Shuja attempted to consolidate theDurrani Realm but was deposed by his brother at theBattle of Nimla (1809).[109] Mahmud Shah Durrani defeated Shah Shuja and forced him to flee, usurping the throne again. His second reign began on 3 May 1809.[110]
In 1839 aBritish expeditionary force marched into Afghanistan, invading thePrincipality of Qandahar, and in August 1839, seizedKabul. Dost Mohammad Khan defeated the British in theParwan campaign, but surrendered following his victory. He was replaced with the former Durrani rulerShah Shuja Durrani as the newruler ofKabul, a de facto puppet of the British.[115][116] Following an uprising that saw the assassination ofShah Shuja, the1842 retreat from Kabul of British-Indian forces and theannihilation ofElphinstone's army, and the punitive expedition ofThe Battle of Kabul that led to its sacking, the British gave up on their attempts to try to subjugate Afghanistan, allowing Dost Mohammad Khan to return as ruler. Following this, Dost Mohammad pursued a myriad of campaigns to unite most of Afghanistan in his reign, launching numerous incursions including against the surrounding states such as theHazarajat campaign,conquest of Balkh,conquest of Kunduz, and theconquest of Kandahar. Dost Mohammad led his final campaign againstHerat, conquering it and re-uniting Afghanistan. During his campaigns of re-unification, he held friendly relations with the British despite the First Anglo-Afghan War, and affirmed their status in theSecond Anglo-Afghan treaty of 1857, whileBukhara and internal religious leaders pressured Dost Mohammad to invade India during theIndian Rebellion of 1857.[117]
Dost Mohammad died in June 1863, a few weeks after his successfulcampaign to Herat. Following his death, a civil war ensued among his sons, prominentlyMohammad Afzal Khan,Mohammad Azam Khan, andSher Ali Khan. Sher Ali won the resultingAfghan Civil War (1863–1869) and ruled Afghanistan until his death in 1879. In his final years, the British returned to Afghanistan in theSecond Anglo-Afghan War to fight perceived Russian influence in the region. Sher Ali retreated to northern Afghanistan, intending to create a resistance there similar to his predecessors, Dost Mohammad Khan, and Wazir Akbar Khan. His untimely death however, sawYaqub Khan declared the new Amir, leading to Britain gaining control of Afghanistan's foreign relations as part of theTreaty of Gandamak of 1879, making it an officialBritish Protected State.[118][119]An uprising however, re-started the conflict, and Yaqub Khan was deposed. During this tumultuous period,Abdur Rahman Khan began his rise to power, becoming an eligible candidate to become Amir after he seizedmuch of Northern Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman marched onKabul, and was declared Amir, being recognized by the British as well. Another uprising byAyub Khan threatened the British, where rebels confronted and defeated British forces in theBattle of Maiwand. Following up on his victory, Ayub Khan unsuccessfullybesieged Kandahar, and his decisive defeat saw the end of the Second Anglo-Afghan War, with Abdur Rahman secured firmly as Amir.[120] In 1893, Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in which the ethnicPashtun andBaloch territories were divided by theDurand Line, which forms the modern-day border between Pakistan and Afghanistan.Shia-dominatedHazarajat and paganKafiristan remained politically independent until beingconquered by Abdur Rahman Khan in 1891–1896. He was known as the "Iron Amir" for his features and his ruthless methods against tribes.[121] He died in 1901, succeeded by his son,Habibullah Khan.
How can a small power like Afghanistan, which is like a goat between these lions [Britain and Russia] or a grain of wheat between two strong millstones of the grinding mill, stand in the midway of the stones without being ground to dust?
During theFirst World War, when Afghanistan was neutral, Habibullah Khan was met by officials of the central powers in theNiedermayer–Hentig Expedition. They called on Afghanistan to declare full independence from the United Kingdom, join them and attack British India, as part of theHindu–German Conspiracy. The effort to bring Afghanistan into the Central Powers failed, but it sparked discontent among the population about maintaining neutrality with the British. Habibullah was assassinated in February 1919, andAmanullah Khan eventually assumed power. A staunch supporter of the 1915–1916 expeditions, Amanullah Khan invaded British India, beginning theThird Anglo-Afghan War, and entering British India via theKhyber Pass.[124]
After the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of theTreaty of Rawalpindi on 19 August 1919,Emir Amanullah Khan declared theEmirate of Afghanistan asovereign and fullyindependent state. He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community, particularly with theSoviet Union and theWeimar Republic.[125][126] He proclaimed himselfKing of Afghanistan on 9 June 1926, forming theKingdom of Afghanistan. He introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms wasMahmud Tarzi, an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923constitution, which made elementary education compulsory.Slavery was abolished in 1923.[127] King Amanullah's wife,Queen Soraya, was an important figure during this period in the fight for woman's education and against their oppression.[128]
Some of the reforms, such as the abolition of the traditionalburqa for women and the opening of co-educational schools, alienated many tribal and religious leaders, leading to theAfghan Civil War (1928–1929). King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929, and soon after Kabul fell toSaqqawist forces led byHabibullah Kalakani.[129]Mohammed Nadir Shah, Amanullah's cousin, defeated and killed Kalakani in October 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah.[130] He abandoned the reforms of King Amanullah in favor of a more gradual approach to modernization, but was assassinated in 1933 byAbdul Khaliq.[131]
Mohammed Zahir Shah succeeded to the throne and reigned as king from 1933 to 1973. During thetribal revolts of 1944–1947, King Zahir's reign was challenged byZadran,Safi,Mangal, andWazir tribesmen led byMazrak Zadran,Salemai, andMirzali Khan, among others – many of whom wereAmanullah loyalists. Afghanistan joined theLeague of Nations in 1934. The 1930s saw the development of roads, infrastructure, the founding of anational bank, and increased education. Road links in the north played a large part in a growing cotton and textile industry.[132] The country built close relationships with theAxis powers, withNazi Germany having the largest share in Afghan development at the time.[133]
King Zahir, the last reigning monarch of Afghanistan, who reigned from 1933 until 1973
Until 1946 King Zahir ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post ofprime minister and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another uncle,Shah Mahmud Khan, became prime minister in 1946 and experimented with allowing greater political freedom. He was replaced in 1953 byMohammed Daoud Khan, aPashtun nationalist who sought the creation of aPashtunistan, leading to highly tense relations with Pakistan.[134] Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and sought a closer relationship with theSoviet Union. Afterward, the1964 constitution was formed, and the first non-royal prime minister was sworn in.[132]
Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining national independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating nationalist feeling, and improving relations with the United Kingdom. Afghanistan was neither a participant inWorld War II nor aligned with either power bloc in theCold War. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure. On a per capita basis, Afghanistan received more Sovietdevelopment aid than any other country. In 1973, while the King was in Italy, Daoud Khan launched abloodless coup and became the firstpresident of Afghanistan, abolishing the monarchy.
In April 1978, the communistPeople's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in a bloody coup d'état against then-PresidentMohammed Daoud Khan, in what is called theSaur Revolution. The PDPA declared the establishment of theDemocratic Republic of Afghanistan, with its first leader named asPeople's Democratic Party General SecretaryNur Muhammad Taraki.[135] This would trigger a series of events that would dramatically turn Afghanistan from a peaceful (albeit poor and secluded) country to a hotbed of conflict and terrorism.[136] The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic, and land distribution reforms that provoked strong opposition, while also brutally oppressing political dissidents. This caused unrest and quickly expanded into a state ofcivil war by 1979, waged by guerrillamujahideen (and smallerMaoist guerrillas) against regime forces countrywide. It quickly turned into aproxy war as the Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, the United Statessupported them through Pakistan'sInter-Services Intelligence (ISI),[137] and theSoviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA regime.[138] Meanwhile, there was increasingly hostile friction between the competing factions of the PDPA – the dominantKhalq and the more moderateParcham.[139]
In October 1979, PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by then-prime ministerHafizullah Amin, who became the new general secretary of the PDPA. The situation in the country deteriorated under Amin, and thousands of people went missing.[140] Displeased with Amin's government, theSoviet Army invaded the country in December 1979, heading for Kabul and killing Amin.[141] A Soviet-organized regime, led by Parcham'sBabrak Karmal but inclusive of both factions (Parcham and Khalq), filled the vacuum. Soviet troops in more substantial numbers were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal, marking the beginning of theSoviet–Afghan War.[142] Lasting nine years, the war caused the deaths of between 562,000[143] and 2 million Afghans,[i] and displaced about 6 million people who subsequently fled Afghanistan, mainly toPakistan andIran.[151] Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages, millions oflandmines were planted,[152] and some cities such asHerat andKandahar were also damaged from bombardment. After theSoviet withdrawal, anothercivil war ensued until the communist regime under PDPA leaderMohammad Najibullah collapsed in 1992.[153][154][155]
The Soviet–Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan. The militarization of society led to heavily armed police, private bodyguards, openly armed civil defense groups and the like becoming the norm in Afghanistan for decades thereafter.[156] The traditional power structure had shifted from clergy, community elders, intelligentsia, and military in favor of powerfulwarlords.[157]
Development of the civil war from 1992 to late 2001
Another civil war broke out after thecreation of a dysfunctional coalitiongovernment between leaders of variousmujahideen factions. Amid a state of anarchy and factional infighting,[158][159][160] variousmujahideen factions committed widespread rape, murder and extortion,[159][161][162] while Kabul was heavily bombarded and partially destroyed by the fighting.[162] Several failed reconciliations and alliances occurred between different leaders.[163] TheTaliban emerged in September 1994 as a movement and militia of students (talib) from Islamicmadrassas (schools) in Pakistan,[162][164] who soon had military support from Pakistan.[165]
Taking control ofKandahar city that year,[162] they conquered more territories until finally driving out the government ofRabbani from Kabul in 1996,[166][167] where they established anemirate.[168] The Taliban were condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their interpretation of Islamicsharia law, which resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans, especiallywomen.[169][170] During their rule, the Taliban and their allies committed massacres against Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians and conducted a policy ofscorched earth, burning vast areas of fertile land and destroying tens of thousands of homes.[j]
After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban,Ahmad Shah Massoud andAbdul Rashid Dostum formed theNorthern Alliance, later joined by others, to resist the Taliban. Dostum's forces were defeated by the Taliban during theBattles of Mazar-i-Sharif in 1997 and 1998; Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff,Pervez Musharraf, began sending thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern Alliance.[k] By 2000, the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of territory, cornered in the northeast. On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by two Arabsuicide attackers inPanjshir Valley. Around 400,000 Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001.[181]
In October 2001, theUnited States invaded Afghanistan to remove the Taliban from power after they refused to hand overOsama bin Laden, the prime suspect of theSeptember 11 attacks, who was a "guest" of the Taliban and was operating hisal-Qaeda network in Afghanistan.[182][183][184] The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion.[185][186] During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps, and later working with the Northern Alliance, the Taliban regime came to an end.[187]
The Afghan government was able to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in 2004 with the nameIslamic Republic of Afghanistan. Attempts were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the country's economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train theAfghan National Security Forces. Following 2002, nearly five millionAfghans were repatriated.[200] The number of NATO troops present in Afghanistan peaked at 140,000 in 2011,[201] dropping to about 16,000 in 2018.[202] In September 2014Ashraf Ghani became president after the2014 presidential election where for the first time in Afghanistan's history power was democratically transferred.[203][204][205] On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-ledOperation Resolute Support was formed the same day as a successor to ISAF.[206][207] Thousands of NATO troops remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces[208] and continue their fight against the Taliban.[209] A report titledBody Count concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians had been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.[210]
On 19 February 2020, theUS–Taliban deal was made in Qatar. The deal was one of the critical events that caused the collapse of theAfghan National Security Forces (ANSF);[211] following the signing of the deal, the US dramatically reduced the number of air attacks and deprived the ANSF of a critical edge in fighting theTaliban insurgency, leading to the Taliban takeover of Kabul.[212]
NATO Secretary GeneralJens Stoltenberg announced on 14 April 2021 that the alliance had agreed to startwithdrawing its troops from Afghanistan by 1 May.[213] Soon after NATO troops began withdrawing, theTaliban launched anoffensive against the Afghan government and quickly advanced in front of collapsing Afghan government forces.[214][215] The Talibancaptured the capital city of Kabul on 15 August 2021, after regaining control over a vast majority of Afghanistan.[216] Several foreign diplomats and Afghan government officials, including president Ashraf Ghani,[217] were evacuated from the country, with many Afghan civilians attempting to flee along with them.[218] On 17 August, first vice presidentAmrullah Saleh proclaimed himself caretaker president and announced the formation of ananti-Taliban front with a reported 6,000+ troops[219][220] in thePanjshir Valley, along withAhmad Massoud.[221][222] However, by 6 September, the Taliban had taken control of most ofPanjshir province, with resistance fighters retreating to the mountains.[223] Clashes in the valley ceased mid-September.[224]
Western nations suspended most of their humanitarian aid to Afghanistan following the Taliban's August 2021 takeover of the country; theWorld Bank andInternational Monetary Fund also halted their payments.[239][240] More than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acutefood shortage in October 2021.[241] Human Rights Watch reported on 11 November 2021 that Afghanistan was facing widespreadfamine due to an economic and banking crisis.[242]
TheTaliban have significantly tackled corruption, improving on thecorruption perceptions index from 174th to 150th best out of 180 countries from 2021 to 2022,[243] but dropping to 162nd in 2023.[244] The Taliban have also reportedly reduced bribery and extortion in public service areas.[243]
At the same time, the human rights situation in the country has deteriorated.[245] Following the 2001 invasion, more than 5.7 million refugees returned to Afghanistan;[246] however, in 2021, 2.6 million Afghans remained refugees, primarily in Iran and Pakistan, and another 4 million were internally displaced.[247]
In October 2023, the Pakistani government ordered theexpulsion of Afghans from Pakistan.[248] Iran also decided to deportAfghan nationals back to Afghanistan.[249] Taliban authorities condemned the deportations of Afghans as an "inhuman act".[250] Afghanistan faced a humanitarian crisis in late 2023.[251]
On 10 November 2024, Afghanistan's Foreign Ministry confirmed that Taliban representatives would attend the2024 United Nations Climate Change Conference, marking the first time the country participated since the Taliban's return to power in 2021. Afghanistan had been barred from previous summits due to the lack of global recognition of the Taliban regime.[252] In May 2025, Iran ordered themass deportation of an estimated 4 million Afghan migrants and refugees.[253]
Afghanistan is located in Southern-Central Asia.[254][255][256][257][258] The region centered at Afghanistan is considered the "crossroads of Asia",[259] and the country has had the nickname Heart of Asia.[260] The renownedUrdu poetAllama Iqbal once wrote about the country:
Asia is a body of water and earth, of which the Afghan nation is the heart. From its discord, the discord of Asia; and from its accord, the accord of Asia.
The geography in Afghanistan is varied, but is mostly mountainous and rugged, with some unusual mountain ridges accompanied by plateaus and river basins.[265] It is dominated by theHindu Kush range, the western extension of theHimalayas that stretches to easternTibet via thePamir Mountains andKarakoram Mountains in Afghanistan's far north-east. Most of the highest points are in the east consisting of fertile mountain valleys, often considered part of the "Roof of the World". The Hindu Kush ends at the west-central highlands, creating plains in the north and southwest, namely theTurkestan Plains and theSistan Basin; these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and semi-deserts, and hot windy deserts, respectively.[266] Forests exist in the corridor betweenNuristan andPaktika provinces (seeEast Afghan montane conifer forests),[267] andtundra in the northeast. The country's highest point isNoshaq, at 7,492 m (24,580 ft) above sea level.[268] The lowest point lies inJowzjan Province along the Amu River bank, at 258 m (846 ft) above sea level.
Despite having numerous rivers andreservoirs, large parts of the country are dry. Theendorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world.[269] TheAmu Darya rises at the north of the Hindu Kush, while the nearbyHari Rud flows west towardsHerat, and theArghandab River from the central region southwards. To the south and west of the Hindu Kush flow a number of streams that are tributaries of theIndus River,[265] such as theHelmand River. TheKabul River flows in an easterly direction to the Indus ending at the Indian Ocean.[270] Afghanistan receives heavy snow during the winter in theHindu Kush andPamir Mountains, and the melting snow in the spring season enters therivers, lakes, and streams.[271][272] However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into the neighboring countries ofIran, Pakistan, andTurkmenistan. As reported in 2010, the state needs more than US$2 billion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed.[273]
In Afghanistan,forest cover is around 2% of the total land area, equivalent to 1,208,440 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, which was unchanged from 1990. Of the naturally regenerating forest, 0% was reported to beprimary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 0% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be underpublic ownership.[274][275]
Afghanistan has acontinental climate with harsh winters in thecentral highlands, the glaciated northeast (aroundNuristan), and theWakhan Corridor, where the average temperature in January is below −15 °C (5 °F) and can reach −26 °C (−15 °F),[265] and hot summers in the low-lying areas of theSistan Basin of the southwest, theJalalabad basin in the east, and theTurkestan plains along theAmu River in the north, where temperatures average over 35 °C (95 °F) in July[268][281] and can go over 43 °C (109 °F).[265] The country is generallyarid in the summers, with most rainfall falling between December and April. The lower areas of northern and western Afghanistan are the driest, with precipitation more common in the east. Although proximate to India, Afghanistan is mostly outside themonsoon zone,[265] except theNuristan Province which occasionally receives summer monsoon rain.[282]
Gazelles,wild pigs and jackals populate thesteppe plains of the south and west, whilemongoose and cheetahs exist in the semi-desert south.[295]Marmots andibex also live in the high mountains of Afghanistan, andpheasants exist in some parts of the country.[296] TheAfghan hound is a native breed of dog known for its fast speed and its long hair; it is relatively known in the west.[297]
A traditional instrument of governance in Afghanistan is theloya jirga (grand assembly), aPashtun consultative meeting that was mainly organized for choosing a newhead of state, adopting a new constitution, or to settle national or regional issue such as war.[302] Loya jirgas have been held since at least 1747,[303] withthe most recent one occurring from June to July 2022.[304][305][306]
Hours after the final flight of American troops left Kabul on 30 August, a Taliban official interviewed said that a new government would likely be announced as early as Friday 3 September afterJumu'ah. It was added thatHibatullah Akhundzada would be officially namedEmir, with cabinet ministers being revealed at theArg in an official ceremony. Abdul Ghani Baradar would be namedhead of government asPrime Minister, while other important positions would go toSirajuddin Haqqani andMullah Yaqoob. Beneath the supreme leader, day-to-day governance will be entrusted to thecabinet.[312]
In a report by CNN-News18, sources said the new government was going to be governed similarly to Iran with Hibatullah Akhundzada as supreme leader similar to the role ofSaayid Ali Khamenei, and would be based out ofKandahar. Baradar or Yaqoob would be head of government asPrime minister. The government's ministries and agencies will be under a cabinet presided over by the Prime Minister. The Supreme Leader would preside over anexecutive body known as the Supreme Council with anywhere from 11 to 72 members.Abdul Hakim Haqqani is likely to be promoted toChief justice. According to the report, the new government will take place within the framework of an amended1964 Constitution of Afghanistan.[313] Government formation was delayed due to concerns about forming a broad-based government acceptable to the international community.[314] It was later added however that the Taliban's Rahbari Shura, the group's leadership council was divided between the hardline Haqqani Network and moderate Abdul Ghani Baradar over appointments needed to form an "inclusive" government. Reports claimed that this culminated in a skirmish which led to Baradar being injured and treated in Pakistan, however this was denied by Baradar himself.[315][316]
As of early September 2021 the Taliban were planning the cabinet to be men-only. Journalists and other human rights activists, mostly women,protested inHerat and Kabul, calling for women to be included.[317] Theacting Cabinet announced on 7 September was men-only, and theMinistry of Women's Affairs was abolished.[299]
As of July 2025, onlyRussia has recognized theTaliban government as the legitimate authorities of Afghanistan.[300] The U.N has stated that recognition was impossible so long as restrictions on female education and employment remained.[318][319] On 16 September 2024, the Taliban suspended polio vaccination campaigns in Afghanistan, as reported by the United Nations, posing a significant risk to global polio eradication efforts.[320] In a decree by Hibatullah Akhundzada on 15 August, the description of the government as interim was dropped, with all ministers remaining in their posts, but on a permanent rather than acting basis.[321][322]
Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (wilayat).[323] Each province has a governor and a capital. The country is further divided into nearly 400 provincialdistricts, each of which normally covers a city or several villages. Each district is represented by a district governor.
Theprovincial governors are now appointed by thePrime Minister of Afghanistan, and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors.[324] The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for four years.[325] The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions.
According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. In practice however, mayors are appointed by the government.[326]
Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations in 1946.[327] Historically, Afghanistan had strong relations with Germany, one of the first countries to recognize Afghanistan's independence in 1919; the Soviet Union, which provided much aid and military training for Afghanistan's forces and includes the signing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978; andIndia, with which a friendship treaty was signed in 1950.[328] Relations withPakistan have often been tense for various reasons such as theDurand Line border issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan insurgent groups.
Homosexuality istaboo in Afghan society;[335] according to the Penal Code, homosexual intimacy is punished by up to a year in prison.[336] UnderSharia law offenders can bepunished by death.[337][338] However, an ancient tradition involving male homosexual acts between children and older men (typically wealthy warlords or elite people) calledbacha bazi persists.
Religious minorities such as Sikhs,[339] Hindus,[340] and Christians have reportedly faced persecution.[341][342]
Since May 2022, all women in Afghanistan have been required by law to wear full-body coverings when in public (either aburqa or anabaya paired with aniqāb, which leaves only the eyes uncovered).[343][344] FirstDeputy LeaderSirajuddin Haqqani claimed the decree is only advisory and no form ofhijab is compulsory in Afghanistan,[345] though this contradicts the reality.[346] It has been speculated that there is a genuine internal policy division over women's rights between hardliners, including leader Hibatullah Akhundzada, and pragmatists, though they publicly present a united front.[347] Another decree was issued shortly after the first, requiring female TV presenters to cover their faces during broadcasts.[348] Since the Taliban takeover, suicides among women have become more common, and the country could now be one of the few where the rate of suicide among women surpasses that among men.[349][350][351]
In May 2022, the Taliban dissolved Afghanistan's Human Rights Commission along with four other government departments, citing the country's budget deficit.[352]
In January 2025,International Criminal Court issued two warrants against theTaliban supreme leaderHaibatullah Akhundzada and theChief judge,Abdul Hakim Haqqani, for committingcrimes against humanity with the oppression and persecution of Afghan women and girls, and deprived of their freedom of movement, the rights to control their bodies, to education, and to a private and family life, while the alleged resistance and opposition were brutally suppressed with murder, imprisonment, torture, rape, and other forms of sexual violence, since 2021. ICC member states are obliged to arrest wanted persons if they are on their territory.[353]
Workers processingpomegranates (anaar), for which Afghanistan is famous in Asia
Afghanistan's nominal GDP was $20.1 billion in 2020, or $81 billion bypurchasing power parity (PPP).[354] ItsGDP per capita is $2,459 (PPP) and $611 by nominal.[354] Despite having $1 trillion or more in mineral deposits,[355] it remains one of the world'sleast developed countries. Afghanistan's rough physical geography and its landlocked status has been cited as reasons why the country has always been among the least developed in the modern era – a factor where progress is also slowed by contemporary conflict and political instability.[265] The country imports over $7 billion worth of goods but exports only $784 million, mainly fruits andnuts. It has $2.8 billion inexternal debt.[268] The service sector contributed the most to the GDP (55.9%) followed by agriculture (23%) and industry (21.1%).[356]
Afghan rugs are one of Afghanistan's main exports.
In 2010, one of the main drivers for the economic recovery was the return of over 5 millionexpatriates, who brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. Many Afghans got involved in construction, which was one of the largest industries in the country at the time.[359] Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 billion New Kabul City next to the capital, the Aino Mena project in Kandahar, and theGhazi Amanullah Khan Town near Jalalabad.[360][361][362] Similar development projects have also begun inHerat,Mazar-e-Sharif, and other cities.[363] An estimated 400,000 people enter the labor market each year.[364]
Several small companies and factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion intelecom investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003.[365]Afghan rugs are becoming popular again, allowing many carpet dealers around the country to hire more workers; in 2016–17 it was the fourth most exported group of items.[366]
Afghanistan is a member ofWTO,SAARC,ECO, andOIC. It holds an observer status inSCO. In 2018, a majority of imports come from either Iran, China, Pakistan and Kazakhstan, while 84% of exports are to Pakistan and India.[367]
Since the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021, the United States hasfrozen about $9 billion in assets belonging to theAfghan central bank,[368] blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in US bank accounts.[369][370]
TheGDP of Afghanistan is estimated to have dropped by 20% following the Taliban return to power. Following this, after months of free-fall, the Afghan economy began stabilizing, as a result of the Taliban's restrictions on smuggled imports, limits on banking transactions, andUN aid. In 2023, the Afghan economy began seeing signs of revival. This has also been followed by stable exchange rates, low inflation, stable revenue collection, and the rise of trade in exports.[371] In the third quarter of 2023, theAfghani rose to be the best performing currency in the world, climbing over 9% against theUS dollar.[372]
Agricultural production is the backbone of Afghanistan's economy[373] and has traditionally dominated the economy, employing about 40% of the workforce as of 2018.[374] The country is known for producingpomegranates, grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits. Afghanistan also became the world's top producer ofcannabis in 2010.[375] In March 2023, however, cannabis production was banned by a decree from Hibatullah Akhundzada.[376]
Saffron, the most expensive spice, grows in Afghanistan, particularlyHerat Province. In recent years, there has been an uptick in saffron production, which authorities and farmers are using to try to replace poppy cultivation. Between 2012 and 2019, the saffron cultivated and produced in Afghanistan was consecutively ranked the world's best by the International Taste and Quality Institute.[377][378] Production hit record high in 2019 (19,469 kg of saffron), and one kilogram is sold domestically between $634 and $1147.[379]
The availability of cheap diesel-powered water pumps imported from China and Pakistan, and in the 2010s, of cheap solar power to pump water, resulted in expansion of agriculture and population in the southwestern deserts of Afghanistan inKandahar,Helmand andNimruz provinces in the 2010s. Wells have gradually been deepened, but water resources are limited. Opium is the major crop, but as of 2022, was under attack by the new Taliban government which, to suppress opium production, was systematically suppressing water pumping.[380][381] In a 2023 report, poppy cultivation in southern Afghanistan was reduced by over 80% as a result of Taliban campaigns to stop its use toward opium. This included a 99% reduction of opium growth in theHelmand Province.[382] In November 2023, a U.N report showed that in the entirety of Afghanistan, poppy cultivation dropped by over 95%, removing it from its place as being the world's largest opium producer.[383][384]
The country has significant amounts oflithium, copper, gold, coal, iron ore, and otherminerals.[385][386][391] TheKhanashincarbonatite in Helmand Province contains 1,000,000 tonnes (980,000long tons; 1,100,000short tons) ofrare earth elements.[392] In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for theAynak copper mine to theChina Metallurgical Group for $3 billion,[393] making it the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history.[394] The state-runSteel Authority of India won the mining rights to develop the hugeHajigak iron ore deposit in central Afghanistan.[395] Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth at least$1 trillion.[387] One official asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of lithium".[396] The lithium reserves of 21 Mio. tons could amount to the ones ofBolivia, which is currently viewed as the country with the largest lithium reserves.[397] Other larger deposits are the ones ofbauxite andcobalt.[397]
Access tobiocapacity in Afghanistan is lower than world average. In 2016, Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares[398] of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.[399] In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person—theirecological footprint of consumption. This means they use just under double as much biocapacity as Afghanistan contains. As a result, Afghanistan is running a biocapacity deficit.[398]
In September 2023, theTaliban signed mining contracts worth$6.5 billion, with extractions based on gold, iron, lead, and zinc in the provinces of Herat, Ghor, Logar, and Takhar.[400]
According to theWorld Bank, 98% of the rural population have access to electricity in 2018, up from 28% in 2008.[401] Overall the figure stands at 98.7%.[402] As of 2016, Afghanistan produces 1,400megawatts of power, but still imports the majority of electricity via transmission lines from Iran and the Central Asian states.[403] The majority of electricity production is viahydropower, helped by the amount of rivers and streams that flow from the mountains.[404] However electricity is not always reliable and blackouts happen, including in Kabul.[405] In recent years an increasing number ofsolar,biomass and wind power plants have been constructed.[406] Currently under development are theCASA-1000 project which will transmit electricity from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and theTurkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) gas pipeline.[405] Power is managed by theDa Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat (DABS, Afghanistan Electricity Company).
Tourism is a small industry in Afghanistan due to security issues. Nevertheless, some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually as of 2016.[407] In particular an important region for domestic and international tourism is the picturesqueBamyan Valley, which includes lakes, canyons and historical sites, helped by the fact it is in a safe area away from insurgent activity.[408][409] Smaller numbers visit and trek in regions such as theWakhan Valley, which is also one of the world's most remote communities.[410] From the late 1960s onwards, Afghanistan was a popular stop on the famoushippie trail, attracting many Europeans and Americans. Coming from Iran, the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and cities includingHerat,Kandahar andKabul before crossing to northern Pakistan, northern India, andNepal.[411][412] Tourism peaked in 1977, the year before the start of political instability and armed conflict.[413]
The city ofGhazni has significant history and historical sites, and together withBamyan city have in recent years been voted Islamic Cultural Capital and South Asia Cultural Capital respectively.[414] The cities ofHerat,Kandahar,Balkh, andZaranj are also very historic. TheMinaret of Jam in theHari River valley is aUNESCO World Heritage Site. A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's prophetMuhammad is kept in theShrine of the Cloak in Kandahar, a city founded byAlexander the Great and the first capital of Afghanistan. Thecitadel of Alexander in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction. In the north of the country is theShrine of Ali, believed by many to be the location whereAli was buried.[415] TheNational Museum of Afghanistan in Kabul hosts a large number of Buddhist,Bactrian Greek and early Islamic antiquities; the museum suffered greatly by civil war but has been slowly restoring since the early 2000s.[416]
Unexpectedly, tourism has seen improvement in Afghanistan following the Taliban takeover. Active efforts by the Taliban encouraged tourism to increase from 691 tourists in 2021, to 2,300 in 2022, to 5,200 in 2023, with some estimates of between 7,000 and 10,000.[417][418][419] This is, however, threatened by theIslamic State – Khorasan Province, who took responsibility for attacks on tourists, such as the2024 Bamyan shooting.[420]
Telecommunication services in Afghanistan are provided byAfghan Telecom,Afghan Wireless,Etisalat,MTN Group, andRoshan. The country uses its own spacesatellite calledAfghansat 1, which provides services to millions of phone, internet, and television subscribers. By 2001 following years of civil war, telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector, but by 2016 it had grown to a $2 billion industry, with 22 million mobile phone subscribers and 5 million internet users. The sector employs at least 120,000 people nationwide.[421]
Due to Afghanistan's geography, transport between various parts of the country has historically been difficult. The backbone of Afghanistan's road network isHighway 1, often called the "Ring Road", which extends for 2,210 kilometres (1,370 mi) and connects five major cities: Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif,[422] with spurs to Kunduz and Jalalabad and various border crossings, while skirting around the mountains of the Hindu Kush.[423]
The Ring Road is crucially important for domestic and international trade and the economy.[424] A key portion of the Ring Road is theSalang Tunnel, completed in 1964, which facilitates travel through the Hindu Kush mountain range and connects northern and southern Afghanistan.[425] It is the only land route that connects Central Asia to theIndian subcontinent.[426] Several mountain passes allow travel between the Hindu Kush in other areas. Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads and highways, particularly on theKabul–Kandahar and theKabul–Jalalabad Road.[427] Traveling by bus in Afghanistan remains dangerous due to militant activities.[428]
The country has three rail links: one, a 75-kilometre (47 mi) line fromMazar-i-Sharif to theUzbekistan border;[430] a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) long line fromToraghundi to theTurkmenistan border (where it continues as part ofTurkmen Railways); and a short link fromAqina across the Turkmen border toKerki, which is planned to be extended further across Afghanistan.[431] These lines are used for freight only and there is no passenger service. A rail line betweenKhaf, Iran andHerat, western Afghanistan, intended for both freight and passengers, was under construction as of 2019.[432][433] About 125 kilometres (78 mi) of the line will lie on the Afghan side.[434][435]
Private vehicle ownership has increased substantially since the early 2000s. Taxis are yellow and consist of both cars andauto rickshaws.[436] In rural Afghanistan, villagers often use donkeys,mules or horses to transport or carry goods. Camels are primarily used by the Kochi nomads.[297] Bicycles are popular throughout Afghanistan.[437]
A Cold War-era CIA map showing traditional Afghan tribal territories.Pashtun tribes form the world's largest tribal society.[438]
Population
The population of Afghanistan was estimated at 35.7million as of 2024 by the AfghanistanNational Statistics and Information Authority,[25] whereas the UN estimates over 42.0million.[30] In 1979 the total population was reported to be about 15.5million.[439] About 25.3% areurbanite, 70.4% live in rural areas, and the remaining 4.3% are nomadic.[25] An additional 3million or so Afghans are temporarily housed in neighboringPakistan andIran, most of whom were born and raised in those two countries. As of 2013, Afghanistan was the largest refugee-producing country in the world, a title held for 32 years.
The current population growth rate is 2.37%,[268] one of the highest in the world outside of Africa. This population is expected to reach 82 million by 2050 if current population trends continue.[440] The population of Afghanistan increased steadily until the 1980s, when civil war caused millions to flee to other countries such as Pakistan.[441] Millions have since returned and the war conditions contribute to the country having the highest fertility rate outside Africa.[442] Afghanistan's healthcare has recovered since the turn of the century, causing falls in infant mortality and increases in life expectancy, although it has the lowest life expectance of any country outside Africa. This (along with other factors such as returning refugees) caused rapid population growth in the 2000s that has only recently started to slow down.[citation needed] TheGini coefficient in 2008 was 27.8.[443]
Fertility rate
Afghanistan 2024total fertility rate has been estimated at 4.4.[444] In 2022 it was 4.5, about twice the world average rate.[445] The rate has fallen since the early 1980s.[446]
Urbanization
As estimated by the CIA World Factbook, 26% of the population was urbanized as of 2020. This is one of the lowest figures in the world; in Asia it is only higher thanCambodia,Nepal andSri Lanka. Urbanization has increased rapidly, particularly in the capitalKabul, due to returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran after 2001, internally displaced people, and rural migrants.[447] Urbanization in Afghanistan is different from typical urbanization in that it is centered on just a few cities.[448]
Kabul is the largest city, with a population of 5 million.[25] The other large cities are located generally in the "ring" around the Central Highlands, namelyKandahar in the south,Herat in the west,Mazar-i-Sharif,Kunduz in the north, andJalalabad in the east.
Afghans are divided into severalethnolinguistic groups. According to research data by several institutions in 2019, thePashtuns are the largest ethnic group, comprising 42%, followed byTajiks, comprising 27%[5][450][451][6] of the country's population. The other two major ethnic groups are theHazaras andUzbeks, each at 9%. A further 10 other ethnic groups are recognized and each are represented in theAfghan National Anthem.[452]
Dari andPashto are theofficial languages of Afghanistan;bilingualism is very common.[453] Dari, which is also referred to as Eastern Persian as it is a variety of and mutually intelligible withPersian (and very often called 'Farsi' by some Afghans like inIran), functions as thelingua franca in Kabul as well as in much of the northern and northwestern parts of the country.[454] Native speakers of Dari, of any ethnicity, are sometimes calledFarsiwans.[455] Pashto is the native tongue of thePashtuns, although many of them are also fluent in Dari while some non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto. Despite the Pashtuns having been dominant in Afghan politics for centuries, Dari remained the preferred language for government and bureaucracy.[456] According toCIA World Factbook, Dari Persian is spoken by 78% (L1 +L2) and functions as the lingua franca, whilePashto is spoken by 50%,Uzbek 10%, English 5%,Turkmen 2%,Urdu 2%,Pashayi 1%,Nuristani 1%,Arabic 1%, andBalochi 1% (2021 est). Data represent the most widely spoken languages; shares sum to more than 100% because there is much bilingualism in the country and because respondents were allowed to select more than one language. There are a number of smaller regional languages, including Uzbek, Turkmen, Balochi, Pashayi, and Nuristani.[268]
The CIA estimated in 2009 that 99.7% of the Afghan population was Muslim[268] and most are thought to adhere to theSunniHanafi school.[460] According toPew Research Center, as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination, 7%Shia and 3%non-denominational.[461] TheCIA Factbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni or up to 15% Shia.[268]
AfghanSikhs andHindus are also found in certain major cities (namely Kabul, Jalalabad, Ghazni, Kandahar)[462][463] accompanied by gurdwaras and mandirs.[464] According toDeutsche Welle in September 2021, 250 remain in the country after 67 were evacuated to India.[465]
There was a smallJewish community in Afghanistan, living mainly in Herat and Kabul. Over the years, this small community was forced to leave due to decades of warfare and religious persecution. By the end of the twentieth century, nearly the entire community had emigrated to Israel and the United States, with one known exception, Herat-bornZablon Simintov. He remained for years, being the caretaker of the only remaining Afghan synagogue. He left the country for the US after the second Taliban takeover. A woman who left shortly after him has since been identified as the likely last Jew in Afghanistan.[466][467][468]
Afghan Christians, who number 500–8,000, practice their faith secretly due to intense societal opposition, and there are no public churches.[469][470]
UNESCO Institute of Statistics Afghanistan Literacy Rate among population aged 15+ (1980–2018)
Education in Afghanistan is overseen by theMinistry of Education and theMinistry of Higher Education. There are over 16,000 schools in the country and roughly 9 million students. Of this, about 60% are males and 40% females. However, the new regime has thus far forbidden female teachers and female students from returning to secondary schools.[471][472] Over 174,000 students are enrolled in differentuniversities around the country. About 21% of these are females.[473] Former Education MinisterGhulam Farooq Wardak had stated that construction of 8,000 schools is required for the remaining children who are deprived offormal learning.[474] As of 2018 the literacy rate of the population age 15 and older is 43.02% (males 55.48% and females 29.81%).[475]
After the Taliban regained power in 2021, it became unclear to what extent female education would continue in the country. In March 2022, after they had been closed for some time, it was announced that secondary education would be reopened shortly. However, shortly before reopening, the order was rescinded and schools for older girls remained closed.[476] Despite the ban, six provinces,Balkh,Kunduz,Jowzjan,Sar-I-Pul,Faryab, and theDay Kundi, still allow girl's schools from grade 6 and up.[477][478] In December 2023, investigations were being held by the United Nations on the claim that Afghan girls of all ages were allowed to study at religious schools.[479] As of November 2024, some parts of the country allow women to attend religious schools to pursue dentistry, nursing, and other subjects.[480]
It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the Afghan population lives within a two-hour walk of the nearest health facility.[486] Thedisability rate is also high in Afghanistan due to the decades of war.[487] It was reported recently that about 80,000 people are missing limbs.[488][489] Non-governmental charities such asSave the Children andMahboba's Promise assist orphans in association with governmental structures.[490]
An Afghan family nearKholm, 1939 – most Afghans are tribal.
Afghans have both common cultural features and those that differ between the regions of Afghanistan, each with distinctive cultures partly as a result of geographic obstacles that divide the country.[265] Family is the mainstay of Afghan society and families are often headed by apatriarch.[491] In the southern and eastern region, the people live according to thePashtun culture by followingPashtunwali (the Pashtun way).[492] Key tenets of Pashtunwali includehospitality, the provision ofsanctuary to those seeking refuge, and revenge for the shedding of blood.[493] The Pashtuns are largely connected to the culture of Central Asia and theIranian Plateau. The remaining Afghans are culturallyPersian andTurkic. Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process calledPashtunization, while some Pashtuns have beenPersianized. Those who have lived in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been further influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations. The Afghan people are known to be strongly religious.[460]
Afghans, particularly Pashtuns, are noted for their tribal solidarity and high regard for personal honor.[494] There are variousAfghan tribes, and an estimated 2–3 millionnomads.[495] Afghan culture is deeplyIslamic,[496] but pre-Islamic practices persist.[497]Child marriage is prevalent;[498] the legal age for marriage is 16.[499] The most preferred marriage in Afghan society is to one'sparallel cousin, and the groom is often expected to pay abride price.[500]
In the villages, families typically occupymudbrick houses, or compounds with mudbrick orstone walled houses. Villages typically have a headman (malik), a master for water distribution (mirab) and a religious teacher (mullah). Men would typically work on the fields, joined by women during harvest.[491] About 15% of the population arenomadic, locally calledkochis.[265] When nomads pass villages they often buy supplies such as tea, wheat andkerosene from the villagers; villagers buywool and milk from the nomads.[491]
Afghan clothing for both men and women typically consists of various forms ofshalwar kameez, especiallyperahan tunban andkhet partug. Women would normally wear achador for head covering; some women, typically from highly conservative communities, wear theburqa, a full body covering. These were worn by some women of the Pashtun community well before Islam came to the region, but theTaliban enforced this dress on women when they were in power.[501] Another popular dress is thechapan which acts as a coat. Thekarakul is a hat made from the fur of a specific regional breed of sheep. It was favored by former kings of Afghanistan and became known to much of the world in the 21st century when it was constantly worn by PresidentHamid Karzai.[502] Thepakol is another traditional hat originating from the far east of the country; it was popularly worn by the guerrilla leaderAhmad Shah Massoud.[503] TheMazari hat originates from northern Afghanistan.[504]
Kabul skyline, displaying both historical and contemporary buildings
The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. Afghanistan contains many remnants from all ages, includingGreek andBuddhist stupas, monasteries, monuments, temples, and Islamic minarets. Among the most well known are theGreat Mosque of Herat, theBlue Mosque, theMinaret of Jam, theChil Zena, the Qala-i Bost inLashkargah, the ancient Greek city ofAi-Khanoum.[505] However, many of its historic monuments have been damaged in modern times due to the civil wars.[506] The two famousBuddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them asidolatrous. As there was no colonialism in the modern era in Afghanistan, European-style architecture is rare but does exist: the Victory Arch atPaghman and theDarul Aman Palace in Kabul were built in this style in the 1920s. Afghan architecture also rangesdeep into India such as the city ofAgra,[507] and thetomb of Sher Shah Suri, anAfghan Emperor of India.[508]
Carpetweaving is an ancient practice in Afghanistan, and many of these are stillhandmade by tribal and nomadic people today.[448] Carpets have been produced in the region for thousands of years and traditionally done by women.[509] Some crafters express their feelings through the designs of rugs; for example after the outbreak of theSoviet–Afghan War, "war rugs", a variant ofAfghan rugs, were created with designs representing pain and misery caused by the conflict.[510] Every province has its own specific characteristics in making rugs.[511] In some of the Turkic-populated areas in the north-west, bride and wedding ceremony prices are driven by the bride's weaving skills.[512]
Pottery has been crafted in Afghanistan for millennia. The village ofIstalif, north of Kabul, is in particular a major center, known for its unique turquoise and green pottery,[513] and their methods of crafting have remained the same for centuries.[514][515] Much oflapis lazuli stones were earthed in modern-day Afghanistan which were used inChinese porcelain ascobalt blue, later used in ancientMesopotamia and Turkey.[516]
The lands of Afghanistan have a long history of art, with the world's earliest known usage ofoil painting found in cave murals in the country.[517][518] A notable art style that developed in Afghanistan and eastern Pakistan isGandhara Art, produced by a fusion ofGreco-Roman art andBuddhist art between the 1st and 7th centuries CE.[519] Later eras saw increased use of thePersian miniature style, withKamaleddin Behzad ofHerat being one of the most notable miniature artists of theTimurid and earlySafavid periods. Since the 1900s, the nation began to use Western techniques in art.Abdul Ghafoor Breshna was a prominent Afghan painter and sketch artist from Kabul during the 20th century.
ClassicPersian andPashto poetry are a cherished part of Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture.[520] One of the poetic styles is calledlanday. A popular theme in Afghan folklore and mythology areDivs, monstrous creatures.[521] Thursdays are traditionally "poetry night" in the city ofHerat when men, women and children gather and recite both ancient and modern poems.[522]
Three mystical authors are considered true national glories (although claimed with equal ardor by Iran), namely:Khwaja Abdullah Ansari of Herat, a great mystic andSufi saint in the 11th century,Sanai ofGhazni, author of mystical poems in the 12th century, and, finally,Rumi ofBalkh, in the 13th century, considered the greatest mystical poet of the Muslim world. The Afghan Pashto literature, although quantitatively remarkable and in great growth in the last century, has always had an essentially local meaning and importance, feeling the influence of both Persian literature and the contiguous literatures of India. Both main literatures, from the second half of the nineteenth century, have shown themselves to be sensitive to genres, movements and stylistic features imported from Europe.
Afghan classical music has close historical links withIndian classical music and use the same Hindustani terminology and theories likeraga. Genres of this style of music includeghazal (poetic music) and instruments such as the Indiantabla,sitar andharmonium, and local instruments likezerbaghali, as well asdayereh andtanbur which are also known in Central Asia, the Caucasus and the Middle East. Therubab is the country's national instrument and precurses the Indiansarod instrument. Some of the famous artists of classical music includeUstad Sarahang andSarban.[524]
Pop music developed in the 1950s throughRadio Kabul and was influential in social change. During this time female artists also started appearing, at firstMermon Parwin.[524] Perhaps the most famous artist of this genre wasAhmad Zahir, who synthesized many genres and continues to be renowned for his voice and rich lyrics long after his death in 1979.[525][524] Other notable masters of traditional or popular Afghan music includeNashenas,Ubaidullah Jan,Mahwash,Ahmad Wali,Farhad Darya, andNaghma.[526]
Attan is the national dance of Afghanistan, a group dance popularly performed by Afghans of all backgrounds.[527] The dance is considered part of Afghan identity.[528]
Afghanistan has around 350radio stations and over 200 television stations.[529]Radio Television Afghanistan, originating from 1925, is the state public broadcaster. Television programs began airing in the 1970s and today there are many private television channels such asTOLO andShamshad TV. The first Afghan newspaper was published in 1873,[530] and there are hundreds of print outlets today.[529] By the 1920s,Radio Kabul was broadcasting local radio services.[531]Voice of America,BBC, andRadio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) broadcast in both of Afghanistan's official languages on radio.[532] Press restrictions have been gradually relaxed and private media diversified since 2002, after more than two decades of tight controls.
Non, the most widely consumed bread in Afghanistan
Afghan cuisine is largely based upon the nation's chief crops, such as wheat, maize,barley and rice. Accompanying these staples are native fruits and vegetables as well as dairy products such as milk,yogurt, andwhey.Kabuli palaw is thenational dish of Afghanistan.[536] The nation's culinary specialties reflect its ethnic and geographic diversity.[537] Afghanistan is known for its high-qualitypomegranates, grapes, and sweet melons.[538] Tea is a favorite drink among Afghans. A typical Afghan diet consists ofnaan, yogurt, rice, and meat.[491]
Holidays and festivals
Haft mewa (seven-fruit syrup), popularly consumed during Nowruz
Afghanistan's official New Year starts withNowruz, an ancient tradition that started as aZoroastrian celebration in present-day Iran, and with which it shares the annual celebration along with several other countries. It occurs every year at thevernal equinox.In Afghanistan, Nowruz is typically celebrated with music and dance, as well as holdingbuzkashi tournaments.[539]
Yaldā, another nationally celebrated ancient tradition,[540] commemorates the ancient goddessMithra and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of thewinter solstice (čelle ye zemestān; usually falling on 20 or 21 December),[541][542] during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruit.[543][544]
As a predominantly Muslim country, Islamic events and festivals such asRamadan,Eid al-Fitr andAshura are widely celebrated annually in Afghanistan. The Sikh festival ofVaisakhi is celebrated by the Sikh community[545] and the Hindu festivalDiwali by the Hindu community.[546]
The ancient national sport of Afghanistan,Buzkashi
Sport in Afghanistan is managed by the Afghan Sports Federation.Cricket and association football are the two most popular sports in the country.[551][552] The Afghan Sports Federation promotes cricket, association football, basketball, volleyball, golf,handball,boxing,taekwondo,weightlifting,bodybuilding, track and field,skating,bowling,snooker,chess, and other sports.
The traditional and the national sport of Afghanistan isbuzkashi, particularly popular in the north.[558] It is similar topolo, played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass.[559] TheAfghan Hound (a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan and was used inwolf hunting.[560]
^The last census in Afghanistan was conducted in 1979, and was itself incomplete. Due to theongoing conflict in the country, no official census has been conducted since.[5]
^Other demonyms that have been used are Afghani,[11] Afghanese and Afghanistani (seeAfghans for further details)[12]
^Afghanistan is a pureautocracy, with all law ultimately originating from the supreme leader.[17][18] There is an advisoryLeadership Council, which is not a legislature as it has no power to pass laws.
^ab The last census was conducted in 1979. Sources disagree about the current population:
^TheGovernment of India regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all ofKashmir to be part of India. However, this isdisputed, and the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan asGilgit-Baltistan.[24]
^RZEPKA, MARCIN. "HOW TO BUILD A NATION WITH WORDS. THE NEW NATIONAL ANTHEM OF AFGHANISTAN." In Proceedings of the Ninth Conference of the European Society for Central Asian Studies, p. 318. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009.
Madadi, Sayed (6 September 2022)."Dysfunctional centralization and growing fragility under Taliban rule".Middle East Institute.Archived from the original on 28 November 2022. Retrieved28 November 2022.In other words, the centralized political and governance institutions of the former republic were unaccountable enough that they now comfortably accommodate the totalitarian objectives of the Taliban without giving the people any chance to resist peacefully.
Sadr, Omar (23 March 2022)."Afghanistan's Public Intellectuals Fail to Denounce the Taliban".Fair Observer.Archived from the original on 23 March 2022. Retrieved28 November 2022.The Taliban government currently installed in Afghanistan is not simply another dictatorship. By all standards, it is a totalitarian regime.
^Griffin, Luke (14 January 2002)."The Pre-Islamic Period".Afghanistan Country Study. Illinois Institute of Technology. Archived fromthe original on 3 November 2001. Retrieved14 October 2010.
"The name Afghan has evidently been derived from Asvakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian... " (Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180. See also: Alexander's Invasion of India, p 38; J.W. McCrindle).
"Even the name Afghan is Aryan being derived from Asvakayana, an important clan of the Asvakas or horsemen who must have derived this title from their handling of celebrated breeds of horses" (See: Imprints of Indian Thought and Culture Abroad, p 124, Vivekananda Kendra Prakashan).
Cf: "Their name (Afghan) means "cavalier" being derived from theSanskrit,Asva, orAsvaka, a horse, and shows that their country must have been noted in ancient times, as it is at the present day, for its superior breed of horses. Asvaka was an important tribe settled north to Kabul river, which offered a gallant resistance but ineffectual resistance to the arms of Alexander." (Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1999, p. 275, Royal Scottish Geographical Society)
"Afghans are Assakani of theGreeks; this word being theSanskritAshvaka meaning 'horsemen'." (Sva, 1915, p. 113, Christopher Molesworth Birdwood)
Cf: "The name represents Sanskrit Asvaka in the sense of acavalier, and this reappears scarcely modified in the Assakani or Assakeni of the historians of the expedition ofAlexander" (Hobson-Jobson:A Glossary of ColloquialAnglo-Indian words and phrases, and of kindred terms, etymological. Henry Yule, A. D. Burnell).
^abGnoli, Gherado (1989).The Idea of Iran, an Essay on its Origin. Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente. p. 133.... he would have drawn inspiration from a ireligious policy which intended to counteract the Median Magi's influence and transfer the 'Avesta-Schule' from Arachosia to Persia: thus the Avesta would have arrived in Persia through Arachosia in the 6th century B.C. [...] Although ... Arachosia would have been only a second fatherland for Zoroastrianism, a significant role should still be attributed to this south-eastern region in the history of the Zoroastrian tradition.
^abGnoli, Gherado (1989).The Idea of Iran, an essay on its Origin. Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente. p. 133.linguistic data [...] prove the presence of the Zoroastrian tradition in Arachosia both in the Achaemenian age, in the last quarter of the 6th century, and in the Seleucid age.
^Weber, Olivier; Unesco (2002).Eternal Afghanistan. Chêne.ISBN978-92-3-103850-1.Gradually there emerged a fabulous syncretism between the Hellenistic world and the Buddhist universe
^Grenet, Grenet (2016).Zoroastriansm among the Kushans.
^abAllen, Charles (5 November 2015).The Search For Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History. Little, Brown Book Group.ISBN978-0-349-14218-0.With Aurmuzd, Sroshard, Narasa and Mihr, we are on safer ground because all are Zoroastrian deities: Aurmuzd is the supreme god of light, Ahura Mazda; and Mihr, the sun god, is linked with the Iranian Mithra. Exactly the same non-Buddhist[...]
^Ende, Werner; Steinbach, Udo (15 April 2010).Islam in the World Today: A Handbook of Politics, Religion, Culture, and Society. Cornell University Press. p. 257.ISBN978-0-8014-6489-8.At the time of the first Muslim advances, numerous local natural religions were competing with Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and Hinduism in the territory of modern Afghanistan.
^Adrych, Philippa; coins), Robert Bracey (Writer on; Dalglish, Dominic; Lenk, Stefanie; Wood, Rachel (2017).Images of Mithra. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-879253-6.The Rabatak inscription includes Miiro amongst a list of gods: Nana, Ahura Mazda, and Narasa. All of these gods likely had images dedicated at the Bagolaggo, presumably alongside statues of Kanishka
^Allen, Charles (5 November 2015).The Search For Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History. Little, Brown Book Group.ISBN978-0-349-14218-0.The two most important deities are goddesses: one is the lady Nana', daughter of the moon god and sister of the sun god, the Kushan form of Anahita, Zoroastrian goddess of fertility
^"Khurasan".The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill. 2009. p. 55.Archived from the original on 25 February 2024. Retrieved20 June 2015.In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, the term "Khurassan" frequently had a much wider denotation, covering also parts of what are now Soviet Central Asia and Afghanistan
^Kakar, Mohammed (3 March 1997).The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982. University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-20893-3.Archived from the original on 6 January 2017. Retrieved7 January 2017.The Afghans are among the latest victims of genocide by a superpower. Large numbers of Afghans were killed to suppress resistance to the army of the Soviet Union, which wished to vindicate its client regime and realize its goal in Afghanistan.
^Klass, Rosanne (1994).The Widening Circle of Genocide. Transaction Publishers. p. 129.ISBN978-1-4128-3965-5.During the intervening fourteen years of Communist rule, an estimated 1.5 to 2 million Afghan civilians were killed by Soviet forces and their proxies- the four Communist regimes in Kabul, and the East Germans, Bulgarians, Czechs, Cubans, Palestinians, Indians and others who assisted them. These were not battle casualties or the unavoidable civilian victims of warfare. Soviet and local Communist forces seldom attacked the scattered guerilla bands of the Afghan Resistance except, in a few strategic locales like the Panjsher valley. Instead they deliberately targeted the civilian population, primarily in the rural areas.
^Reisman, W. Michael; Norchi, Charles H."Genocide and the Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan"(PDF).Archived(PDF) from the original on 26 October 2016. Retrieved7 January 2017.According to widely reported accounts, substantial programmes of depopulation have been conducted in these Afghan provinces: Ghazni, Nagarhar, Lagham, Qandahar, Zabul, Badakhshan, Lowgar, Paktia, Paktika and Kunar...There is considerable evidence that genocide has been committed against the Afghan people by the combined forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and the Soviet Union.
^"Afghanistan".publishing.cdlib.org.Archived from the original on 21 January 2023. Retrieved25 August 2021.
^Saikal, Amin (13 November 2004).Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival (2006 1st ed.). I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., London New York. p. 352.ISBN978-1-85043-437-5.
^GUTMAN, Roy (2008): How We Missed the Story: Osama bin Laden, the Taliban and the Hijacking of Afghanistan, Endowment of the United States Institute of Peace, 1st ed., Washington D.C.
^"Afghan Futures: A National Public Opinion Survey"(PDF).Afghan Center for Socio-economic and Opinion Research. 29 January 2015. p. 4.Archived(PDF) from the original on 29 March 2017. Retrieved2 January 2017.Seventy-seven percent support the presence of U.S. forces; 67 percent say the same of NATO/ISAF forces more generally. Despite the country's travails, eight in 10 say it was a good thing for the United States to oust the Taliban in 2001. And much more blame either the Taliban or al Qaeda for the country's violence, 53 percent, than blame the United States, 12 percent. The latter is about half what it was in 2012, coinciding with a sharp reduction in the U.S. deployment.
^"Operations".The National Resistance Front: Fighting for a Free Afghanistan. National Resistance Front of Afghanistan. Archived fromthe original on 6 September 2021. Retrieved21 August 2021.
^ab"Can the Taliban Tackle Corruption in Afghanistan?".VOA. 31 January 2023.Archived from the original on 16 August 2023. Retrieved16 August 2023.Taliban-ruled Afghanistan is ranked 150th, a remarkable status upgrade from its 174th ranking in 2021. In 2011, at the height of U.S. military and developmental engagement in Afghanistan, the country was ranked 180th, next to North Korea and Somalia.
^Tan, Anjelica (18 February 2020)."A new strategy for Central Asia".The Hill.Archived from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved28 March 2020., as Afghan President Ashraf Ghani has noted, Afghanistan is itself a Central Asian country.
^"Earthquake Hazards".USGS Projects in Afghanistan. US Geological Survey. 1 August 2011. Archived fromthe original on 4 October 2011. Retrieved13 October 2011.
^"EU To Impose Ban on Afghan Planes". Airwise News. 22 November 2010.Archived from the original on 24 May 2013. Retrieved28 May 2019.Kabul-basedSafi is the country's No. 2 airline after national carrier Ariana Afghan Airlines
^"Khaf-Herat railroad to be launched in Iran soon". 7 August 2018.Archived from the original on 28 September 2018. Retrieved27 September 2018."Iran-Afghanistan railway networks through Khaf-Herat Railroad will be completed in the next few months," Yazdani said, according to Mehr news agency on 3 August
^"Khaf-Herat railway".RaillyNews | Dailly Railway News in English. 10 December 2013. Archived fromthe original on 20 December 2017. Retrieved1 June 2014.
^Porter, Valerie; Alderson, Lawrence; Hall, Stephen J.G.; Sponenberg, D. Phillip (9 March 2016).Mason's World Encyclopedia of Livestock Breeds and Breeding, 2 Volume Pack. p. 23.ISBN978-1-84593-466-8.[Donkeys] are the primary means of transportation in the countryside (along with bicycles) and are sometimes described as the 'Jeeps' of Afghanistan — or even as the country's 'helicopters'.
^"Article Sixteen of the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan". 2004. Archived fromthe original on 28 October 2013. Retrieved13 June 2012.Pashto and Dari are the official languages of the state. Uzbek, Turkmen, Baluchi, Pashai, Nuristani and Pamiri are – in addition to Pashto and Dari – the third official language in areas where the majority speaks them
^TheEncyc. Iranica makes clear in the article on Afghanistan — Ethnography that "The term Farsiwan also has the regional forms Parsiwan and Parsiban. In religion they are Imami Shia. In the literature they are often mistakenly referred to as Tajik."Dupree, Louis (1982) "Afghanistan: (iv.) Ethnography", inEncyclopædia Iranica Online Edition 2006.
^Gul, Ayaz (20 April 2019)."Pakistan-funded Afghan Hospital Begins Operations".VOA News.Archived from the original on 23 April 2019. Retrieved28 May 2019.It opens a new chapter in the friendship of the two countries... This is the second-largest hospital [in Afghanistan] built with your support that will serve the needy," Feroz told the gathering.
^ud-Din, Hameed (1960). "THE AFGHAN ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA: An historical study, 1451–1526".Rivista degli studi orientali.35:149–155.ISSN0392-4866.JSTOR41922907.
^Habib, Irfan (2007).Medieval India the study of a civilization. National Book Trust, India. p. 228.ISBN978-81-237-5255-6.
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