AncientAethiopia, (Greek:Αἰθιοπία,romanized: Aithiopía) first appears as a geographical term in classical documents in reference to the skin color of the inhabitants of the upper Nile inSudan, areas south of theSahara, and less often to certain parts of Asia. Its earliest mention is in the works ofHomer: twice in theIliad,[1] and three times in theOdyssey.[2] The Greek historianHerodotus uses the appellation to refer to regions south of Egypt when describing "Aethiopians," most commonlyNubia.[3] Despite this, theByzantine Greeks also referred to theAksumites as Ethiopians andNegusEzana, conqueror ofMeroë took on the title of "king of Ethiopia"[4] prior to the rise of the medievalEthiopian Empire. Greco-Roman sources also report the existence of 'White Aethiopians' in Africa.[5] By the modern period the termAethiopian Sea was used to refer to the southern Atlantic Ocean, particularly the area adjacent toWest Africa.
Though near universally used to invoke the "Ethiopia of Africa" ("African Ethiopia"); there was another region sometimes called Asiatic Ethiopia,[6] located somewhere in 'the East'. According to Herodotus: "the Ethiopians from the East are straight-haired, but those of Libya [Africa] have hair more thick and woolly than that of any other men."[7] The Greek geographer Strabo noted in a similar vein that “As for the people of India, those in the south are like the Aethiopians in colour, although they are like the rest in respect to countenance and hair (for on account of the humidity of the air their hair does not curl), whereas those in the north are like the Aegyptians.”[8]
Unlike the earlier Greek writers who distinguished Ethiopians from other Africans,Claudius Ptolemy (90–168 AD), a Roman citizen who lived in Alexandria, used "Ethiopia" as a racial term. In hisTetrabiblos: Or Quadripartite, he tried to explain the physical characteristics of people around the world saying, 'They are consequently black in complexion, and have thick and curled hair...and they are called by the common name of Aethiopians.'"
Pseudo-Jerome in the 4th century or later referred to the region ofColchis as the "Other Ethiopia" (altera Aethiopia), or, in the Greek translation ofPseudo-Sophronius, the "Second Ethiopia" (ἐν τῇ δευτέρᾳ Αἰθιοπίᾳ).[9]
TheGreek nameAithiopia (Αἰθιοπία, fromΑἰθίοψ,Aithíops) is acompound derived of two Greek words:αἴθω,aíthō,'I burn' +ὤψ,ṓps,'face'. According to thePerseus Digital Library, this designation properly translates innoun form asburnt-face and inadjectival form asred-brown.[10][11] As such, it was used as a vague term for darker skinned populations than the Greeks since the time ofHomer.[note 1][12] The term was applied to such peoples within the range of observation of theancient geographers, primarily in what was thenNubia (in ancientSudan). With the expansion of geographical knowledge, theexonym successively extended to certain other areas below the Sahara. In classical antiquity, the termAfrica did not refer to any part of sub-Saharan Africa, but rather, in its widest sense, toAncient Libya—what is now known as theMaghreb and the desert to the south.
Homer (c. 8th century BC) is the first to mention "Aethiopians" (Αἰθίοπες,Αἰθιοπῆες), writing that they are to be found at the east and west extremities of the world, divided by the sea into "eastern" (at the sunrise) and "western" (at the sunset). In Book 1 of theIliad,Thetis visitsOlympus to meetZeus, but the meeting is postponed, as Zeus and other gods are absent, visiting the land of the Aethiopians. Meanwhile, in Book 1 of theOdyssey, Athena convinces Zeus to let Odysseus finally return home only because Poseidon is away in Aithiopia and unable to object.
Hesiod (c. 8th century BC) speaks ofMemnon as the "King of the Aethiopians."[13] InThe Catalogues of Women, he stated that the Egyptian kingEpaphus was the progenitor of the Aethiopians and other dark-skinned tribes ofLibya. He wrote:
The Sons of Boreas pursued the Harpies to the lands of the Massagetae and of the proud Half-Dog men, of the Underground-folk and of the feeble Pygmies; and to the tribes of the boundless Black-skins and the Libyans. Huge Earth bare these to Epaphus -- soothsaying people, knowing seercraft by the will of Zeus the lord of oracles, but deceivers, to the end that men whose thought passes their utterance might be subject to the gods and suffer harm -- Aethiopians and Libyans and mare-milking Scythians. For verily Epaphus was the child of the almighty Son of Cronos, and from him sprang the dark Libyans, and high-souled Aethiopians, and the Underground-folk and feeble Pygmies. All these are the offspring of the lord, the Loud-thunderer.[14]
TheAssyrian kingEsarhaddon when conquering Egypt and destroying theKushite Empire states how he "deported all 'Aethiopians' from Egypt, leaving not one to pay homage to me". He was talking about the Nubian 25th Dynasty rather than people from modern Ethiopia.
In 515 BC,Scylax of Caryanda, on orders fromDarius I of theAchaemenid Empire, sailed along theIndus River,Indian Ocean, andRed Sea, circumnavigating theArabian Peninsula. He mentioned "Aethiopians", though his writings on them have not survived.
Hecataeus of Miletus (c. 500 BC) is also said to have written a book about 'Aethiopia,' but his writing is now known only through quotations from later authors. He stated that 'Aethiopia' was located to the east of theNile, as far as the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. He is also quoted as relating a myth in which theSkiapods ('Shade feet'), whose feet were supposedly large enough to serve as shade, lived there.[citation needed]
In hisHistories (c. 440 BC),Herodotus presents some of the most ancient and detailed information about "Aethiopia".[15] He relates that he personally traveled up theNile to the border ofEgypt as far asElephantine (modernAswan).[16] In his view, "Aethiopia" is all of the inhabited land found to the south of Egypt, beginning at Elephantine. He describes a capital atMeroë, adding that the only deities worshipped there wereZeus (Amun) andDionysus (Osiris). He relates that in the reign of PharaohPsamtik I (c. 650 BCE), many Egyptian soldiers deserted their country and settled amidst the Aethiopians.
Herodotus remarked on shared cultural practices between the Egyptians and Ethiopians, also stating that out of "three hundred and thirty kings" of Egypt, there had been 18 Ethiopian kings, one native Egyptian queen, and the rest had been Egyptian men.[17]
Herodotus tells us that kingCambyses II (c. 570 BC) of theAchaemenid Empire sent spies to the Aethiopians "who dwelt in that part ofLibya (Africa) which borders upon the southern sea." They found a strong and healthy people. Although Cambyses then campaigned toward their country, by not preparing enough provisions for the long march, his army completely failed and returned quickly.[18]
In Book 3, Herodotus defines "Aethiopia" as the farthest region of "Libya" (i.e. Africa):[18]
Where the south declines towards the setting sun lies the country called Aethiopia, the last inhabited land in that direction. Theregold is obtained in great plenty, hugeelephants abound, with wild trees of all sorts, andebony; and the men are taller, handsomer, and longer lived than anywhere else.
Herodotus also wrote that the Ammonians ofSiwa Oasis are "colonists from Egypt and Aethiopia and speak a language compounded of the tongues of both countries".[19][20]
Herodotus also refers to "the Aethiopians of Asia" (or "Ethiopians of the East"), who are said to be straight-haired, whereas the Aethiopians from Libya (Africa) have "the woolliest hair of all men".[21][22]
Herodotus wrote with regard to the inhabitants of Libya (the Greek name for Africa): "One thing I can add about this far country [Libya]: so far as one knows, it is inhabited by four races, and four only, of which two are indigenous and two not. The indigenous peoples are the Libyans and Ethiopians, the former occupying the northerly, the latter the more southerly parts; the immigrants are the Phoenicians and Greeks."[23]
According toHerodotus the Macrobians dwelt geographically along the sea south of Libya on theAtlantic.[24] This Libya was far south of the Pillars of Hercules andAtlas Mountains along the Atlantic coast, while the northern Libyan sea coast was theMediterranean Sea that stretched from Egypt toMorocco in an east to west direction.[25] Concerning the southern sea, Herodotus places the Persians east of the southern sea in Asia, the Arabians & East Africans south of the sea in Arabia and the Macrobians west of the southern Sea in Libya. Herodotus also stated that the Macrobians were indigenous to southern Libya while the Libyans along the Mediterranean Sea were indigenous to northern Libya.[26] According to his account, thePersian EmperorCambyses II upon hisconquest of Egypt (525 BC) sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for its king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based at least in part on stature, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrungbow: if the Persians could manage to string it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire.[27][28] This is similar to an account of the Nubians challenging foreigners to draw and fire their great bows, but the fact Cambyses is said to have already conquered at least part of Aethiopia makes connecting Nubia and the Macrobians untennable.Later authors such asScylax in his periplus also place them south of the pillars of Hercules, and Scylax also reported a trade taking place between Phoenicians (Carthaginians) and tallEthiopians (Macrobians).[29] Herodotus also mentions asilent trade of gold that took place between Carthaginians and natives south of Libya beyond the Pillars of Hercules; it was also this gold trade that motivatedCambyses, the King of Persia, to plan a land and sea expedition against both the Carthaginians and Macrobian.Pliny in his natural histories places them west ofMeroe, far west of Meroe beyond the deserts of Chad that is.[30] Cambyses, after being insulted by the tallest and long-lived (Macrobian) King of Ethiopia in the west, he eagerly wanted to conquer and subdue all people of Amun and destroy all temples of the God, but failed in his desperate attempt. And although Cambyses had departed fromSusa to invade and conquer the land of Egypt by crossing the Sinai desert and afterwards departing from Egypt to reach the southern realms of Ethiopia south of Egypt, he was still far away from the land of the Macrobians, who dwelt beyond the vast Sahara desert at the ends of the earth as far as the Ocean towards the western sunset.
The Egyptian priestManetho (c. 300 BC) listedKushite (25th) dynasty, calling it the "Aethiopian dynasty," andEsarhaddon the early 7th century BC ruler of theNeo-Assyrian Empire describes deporting all "Aethiopians" from Egypt upon conquering Egypt from the NubianKushite Empire which formed the 25th Dynasty. Moreover, when theHebrew Bible wastranslated into Greek (c. 200 BC), the Hebrew appellation "Kush, Kushite" became in Greek "Aethiopia, Aethiopians", appearing as "Ethiopia, Ethiopians" in the EnglishKing James Version.[31]
Agatharchides provides a relatively detailed description of the gold mining system of Aethiopia. His text was copied almost verbatim by virtually all subsequent ancient writers on the area, includingDiodorus Siculus andPhotius.[32]
Diodorus Siculus in his workBibliotheca Historica, reported that the Ethiopians claimed thatEgypt was an early colony, and that the Ethiopians also cited evidence that they were more ancient than the Egyptians as he wrote:
"The Ethiopians say that the Egyptians are one of their colonies which was brought into Egypt by Osiris".[33]
He recounted this story that attributes the origins of Egyptian civilization to migrants from the south, which in this context corresponds to theKingdom of Kush.
Diodorus Siculus also discussed the similar cultural practices between the Ethiopians and Egyptians such as the writing systems as he states "We must now speak about the Ethiopian writing which is called hieroglyphic among the Egyptians, in order that we may omit nothing in our discussion of their antiquities".[34]
Achilles Tatius described the complexion of the Egyptian herdsmen nearAlexandria as "dark-coloured (yet not absolutely black like anIndian but more like a bastard Ethiopian)".[35][36]
With regard to the Ethiopians,Strabo indicates that they looked similar toIndians,[37] remarking "those who are in Asia (South India), and those who are in Africa, do not differ from each other."[38]Pliny in turn asserts that the place-name "Aethiopia" was derived from one "Aethiop, a son ofVulcan"[38] (the Greek godHephaestus).[39] He also writes that the "Queen of the Ethiopians" bore the titleKandake, and avers (incorrectly) that the Ethiopians had conqueredancient Syria and theMediterranean. Following Strabo, the Greco-Roman historianEusebius claims that the Ethiopians had emigrated into theRed Sea area from theIndus Valley and that there were no people in the region by that name prior to their arrival.[38][40]
Physiognomonics, a Greek treatise traditionally attributed toAristotle, but now ofdisputed ownership made an observation on the physical nature of theEgyptians and Ethiopians with the view that "Those who are too black are cowards, like for the instance, the Egyptians and Ethiopians"[41]
The Greek travelogue from the 1st-century AD, known as thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea, initially describes thelittoral, based on its author's intimate knowledge of the area. However, thePeriplus does not mention any dark-skinned "Ethiopians" among the area's inhabitants. They only later appear inPtolemy'sGeographia in a region far south, around the "Bantu nucleus" of northernMozambique.
Arrian, wrote in the 1st-century AD that "The appearance of the inhabitants is also not very different in India and Ethiopia: the southern Indians are rather more like Ethiopians as they are black to look on, and their hair is black; only they are not so snub-nosed or woolly-haired as the Ethiopians; the northern Indians are most like the Egyptians physically".[42][43]
TheEzana Stone, a stele documenting the reign ofEzana of Axum states the following:
I, Ezana, King of the Kingdom of Aksum andHimyarites and ofReeidan and of theEthiopians and of theSabaites and of Sileel (?) and of Hasa and of the Bougaites and of Taimo...
— Greek inscription of Ezana.[44]
The terms King and Kingdom of Ethiopia would later be used by, among others,Amda Seyon I andZara Yaqob. Early in the history ofItalian Eritrea the name "Nuova Etiopia" (New Ethiopia) was proposed.
Also the Roman ChristianPseudo-Jerome and his translatorPseudo-Sophronius referred toColchis as the "other Ethiopia" or "second Ethiopia".[45]
Stephanus of Byzantium, from the 6th-century AD, had written that "Ethiopia was the first established country on earth; and the Ethiopians were the first to set up the worship of the gods and to establish laws."[46][47]
Manilius, a Roman poet wrote in hisAstronomicon "The Ethiopians stain the world and depict a race of men steeped in darkness; less sun-burnt are the natives of India; the land of Egypt, flooded by the Nile, darkens bodies more mildly owing to the inundation of its fields: it is a country nearer to us and its moderate climate imparts a medium tone."[48]
Philostratus (c. 170 – c. 245 AD) had written in hisjourneys and life ofApollonios of Tyana, he had at one point arrived at "the crossing point between Ethiopia and Egypt, which is called Kaminos", where at a marketplace the Ethiopians and Egyptians would trade and barter products. It was seen that "those who live at the border of the two countries are not quite black, but of the same color as each other, since they are less black than the Ethiopians, but more so than the Egyptians."[49]
Several personalities in Greek and medieval literature were identified as Aethiopian, including several rulers, male and female:
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"Nor where Abassin Kings thir issue Guard,
Mount Amara, though this by som suppos'd
True Paradise under the Ethiop Line"
The country above Elephantine now begins to be inhabited by Ethiopians: half the people of the island are Ethiopians, and half Egyptians. Near the island is a great lake, on whose shores live nomadic Ethiopians. After crossing this, you come to the stream of the Nile, which empties into this lake.
The inhabitants of the south resemble the Ethiopians in colour, but their countenances and hair are like those of other people. Their hair does not curl, on account of the humidity of the atmosphere. The inhabitants of the north resemble the Egyptians.